Journal of Applied Phycology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-022-02854-4
Concise review of green algal genus Monostroma Thuret
Manpreet Kaur1
· Swarna Kala1
· Aseema Parida1 · Felix Bast1
Received: 3 August 2022 / Revised and accepted: 9 October 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2022
Abstract
Monostroma (Ulotrichales, Chlorophyta) is the most intensively cultivated genus among green seaweeds, accounting for
over 90% of total green algal cultivation. It is commonly found in the eulittoral zones of marine and estuarine habitats, thus
contributing significantly to the ecology of the coastal ecosystem. Morphologically, the frond of Monostroma is blade-like
with eponymous one-cell thickness; therefore, it is also known as “Slender sea lettuce”. Monostroma nitidum is often used for
salad ingredients, boiled tsukudani, soups, etc., due to its health benefits. Monostroma kuroshiense is commercially cultivated
in East Asia and South America for the edible product "hitoegusa-nori" or "hirohano-hitoegusa nori", popular sushi wraps.
This genus remains one of the well-studied seaweed genera for ecophysiology, habitat-dependent seasonality of its growth
pattern, gametangial ontogeny and phylogenetics. Moreover, rhamnan sulfate (RS), a sulfated polysaccharide, is the main
component of the fiber extracted from M. nitidum and studied for various biological activities. This review presents the
taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, life history, distribution, ecology, physiology, cultivation and harvesting, chemical composition, and biotechnological applications of this genus.
Keywords Monostroma · Chlorophyta · Estuarine · Rhamnan sulfate · Seedling culture
Taxonomy
All single cell-layered green algae with blade-like thallus
were traditionally grouped under the eponymous genus Monostroma (Thuret 1854). Kunieda (1934) erected the family
Monostromaceae (later synonym for Monostromataceae
Kunieda ex Suneson 1947) to include this genus. Overclassification and a lack of a clear-cut systematic placement
of this ulvophycean group have emerged from several and
often contradicting taxonomic revisions. In Monostroma,
for example, there are two lectotypifications: one recognizes Monostroma oxyspermum (Papenfuss 1960), and the
other recognizes Monostroma bullosum (Kornmann 1964).
Codiolales (Kornmann 1964; Hoek et al. 1995), Ulotrichales
(Gayral 1964; Chapman and Chapman 1973; Floyd and
O’Kelly 1990; Graham and Wilcox 2000; Gabrielson et al.
2004) and Ulvales (Bliding 1968; Vinogradova 1974; Bold
and Wynne 1985) were at least three ordinal placements of
this family as well.
* Felix Bast
felix.bast@gmail.com
1
Due to shared ontogeny (Disc-Sac-Blade; DSB) and
swarmer release (simultaneously through an irregular rent),
Gayral (1964) grouped Monostroma angicava, Monostroma
grevillei, and M. bullosum under Ulvopsis, and reserved the
genus Monostroma only for asexual species with typical
ontogeny (presence of a filament stage) and zoid release
mechanism (en-masse without pore). In contrast, Kornmann
(1964) and Bliding (1968) advocated that asexual Monostroma members be removed. To accommodate the asexual
members such as Monostroma undulatum and M. oxyspermum, Vinogradova (1969) created two monotypic genera,
Protomonostroma and Gayralia. Because of their isomorphic life cycle patterns, Monostroma fuscum and Monostroma obscurum have been reclassified with the resurrected
genus Ulvaria in the order Ulvaceae (Gayral 1964). Due to
shared life cycle and ontogenetic patterns, Monostroma leptodermum and Monostroma zostericola have been grouped
under the new genus Kornmannia, and placed under Ulvales
due to a typical flagellate release mechanism in which
swarmers are released one by one through a gametangial
exit pore (Bliding 1968). Due to similarities in habit (cylindrical gametophyte), thallus ontogeny (filament-tube), and
swarmer release mechanism, Monostroma groenlandicus has
Department of Botany, Central University of Punjab,
Ghudda, Bathinda, Punjab 151401, India
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Journal of Applied Phycology
been placed in the genus Capsosiphon (en-masse), enclosed
within hyaline sheath (Vinogradova 1969).
Polyphyly in this group of algae has resulted in a lack of
synapomorphic features, leading to taxonomic uncertainty.
Many studies have found that Ulvophycean algae have a high
degree of phenotypic plasticity, making diagnostic characters like "monostromatic blade" unreliable taxonomically.
Prasiola green algae, for example, exhibit macroscopic
monostromatic thalli that resemble Kornmannia, but they
belong to another class (Trebouxiophyceae). A green-tide
forming single cell-layered algae that looked like Monostroma isolated from the west coast of Finland turned out
to be a tubular Ulva morphotype (Blomster et al. 2002).
Abiotic factors such as nutrient supply (Valiela et al. 1997)
and salinity (Reed and Russell 1978) are believed to induce
morphological changes in green algae. For a long time, phenotypical polymorphism caused by biotic factors has been
known in green algae. Specific bacterial strains isolated
from M. oxyspermum have been shown to cause morphogenic alterations in axenic cultures of this alga and in Ulva
pertrusa and Ulva intestinalis (Matsuo et al. 2003).
Moreover, a molecular approach can relatively accurately identify the taxonomic positions of species and subspecies compared with traditional morphological methods
(Blomster 2000). Therefore, species identification in recent
taxonomic studies has been confirmed using molecular
markers (such as chloroplast rbcL genes, ITS regions, or
5S rDNA regions) combined with morphological characteristics (Blomster 2000; Ding 2015; Cui et al. 2018; Yang
et al. 2020; Tandel et al. 2021; VinceCruz-Abeledo et al.
2021). The compiled nrITS sequence homology of approximately 600 nucleotide base pairs by Cui et al. (2021) found
that all Monostroma strains collected from Naozhou Island
belonged to the same clade as M. nitidum (AF415170) in
the ML (Maximum Likelihood) and NJ (Neighbor joining)
phylogenetic trees. The same molecular method and referred
sequences were also applied to confirm the identity of Monostroma strains from Guangdong and Zhejiang (Ding 2015).
Monostroma does not appear to be monophyletic based
on the ITS sequence. Many entities included in Ulva have
been shifted to Monostroma based on molecular analysis
(Brodie et al. 2016; Sfriso 2010; Alongi et al. 2014). As a
result, about 32 species of this genus are currently accepted
worldwide (Guiry and Guiry 2021).
Morphology and anatomy
Monostroma is macroscopic, initially sacklike, later splitting to form a single-layered membrane, parenchymatous
or cells rounded and grouped in fours or separated by mucilage, commonly attached by rhizoidal protuberances. Cells
are angular by compression or rounded, each with a single
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parietal chloroplast encircling most of the cell and a single
pyrenoid (Wehr et al. 2015). The morphology of monostromatic Ulotrichales members varies little; nonetheless, the
genera differ in the number of flagella on reproductive cells,
ontogeny, and life history (Bast et al. 2009a).
Cui et al. (2021) reported that the thalli of attached Monostroma strains (collected from Dalang, Naozhou Island,
near the South China Sea Coast of Zhanjiang City) were
yellowish or light green, flat, monostromatic and approximately 11.60 ± 6.23 cm long and 7.55 ± 3.45 cm wide. Cells
in surface view were irregularly arranged and triangular
or polygonal with three to five rounded corners. A single
prominent chloroplast covered most of the outer cell in the
surface view and contained mainly one (90%), and rarely
two (6%) or three (4%), pyrenoids. Cells in transverse sections were circular or quadrangular with rounded corners
and 38.80 ± 2.40 μm thick (Cui et al. 2021). Based on morphological and developmental characteristics combined with
nuclear-encoded internal transcribed spacer sequences, Cui
et al. (2021) identified these strains as M. nitidum. Similarly, Wang et al. (2015) described the frond of M. nitidum as
monostromatic, yellowish-green or light green, 2–15 cm
long, and shiny, with a frilly and mangled edge. In the cross
section, the frond is composed of a single layer of cells
enclosed within a gelatinous matrix 30–40 μm thick. In the
surface view, cells are unordered and polygonal with three
to five rounded corners.
Titlyanov et al. (2016) described the thallus of Monostroma latissimum as being membranous, flaccid, soft, thin,
ruffled surface, and perforated with many holes of various
sizes, light green, 10–20 cm across. Margins are smooth or
undulating. Cell from surface view rectangular to polygonal with rounded corners, disordered, often in groups of
2–3(–4), 15–17 μm across. In the transverse section, blade
one cell thick, 30(–35) μm at the basal portion and 20–25 μm
above; cells vertically oval 12.5–117.5(–20) μm high. Chloroplast single, central with one pyrenoid. Attachment by a
small holdfast. They grow on rocks and dead corals in the
upper intertidal zone.
Life history
The lifecycle is haplodiploid alternation, with the dominant,
macroscopic phase being the haploid dioecious gametophyte (Fig. 1A). Upon maturity, apical parts of the fronds
mature and phototactic biflagellate gametes are released.
Fertilization is anisogamous and settled zygotes mature
into microscopic, spherical diploid codiolum-sporophytes.
After 3–4 months of growth sporophytes are matured and
quadriflagellate zoospores are produced. Settled zoospores
germinate and develop into respective gametophytes, thus
completing the life cycle. Various life stages are known;
Journal of Applied Phycology
Fig. 1 Life cycle and thallus
ontogeny patterns of Monostroma.
An “R?” indicates presumable
sporic meiosis (Bast 2015)
sexual forms (dioecious/monoecious, isogamous/anisoganous) and asexual forms without a codiolum/cyst stage
or with a codiolum/cyst phase (produced via parthenogenetic
female pseudo-gametes). A monomorphic asexual lifecycle
in this genus has also been reported from a population in
Japan (Bast et al. 2009b). In this lifecycle, there is no sexual
fusion and the swarmer germinates directly without passing
through the sporophyte stage (Fig. 1B). Ontogenetic patterns
of Monostroma can be broadly divided into two categories:
one with disc-phase intermediate and second with filamentous intermediate. The former pattern always results in a sac
stage that bursts out to produce a leafy monostromatic blade
(Disc-Sac-Blade, DSB), whereas the latter pattern develops into expanded blade with (Filament-Sac-Blade, FSB)
or without (Filament-Blade, FB) the sac stage intermediate
(Bast 2015).
to the habitats where it grows and recurs annually. Three
distinct thallus types (inner-bay type, estuary type, and opensea type) of Monostroma have been characterized based on
the habitat (Kida 1990). Physico-chemical characteristics
such as temperature, irradiance, salinity, nutrient level and
biological (presence or absence of grazers) characteristics
of the habitat or a combination of these factors could cause
these habitat-dependent differences (Bast et al. 2009b).
Wave action might be a limiting factor as it is shorter in
wave-swept habitats than in sheltered ones. In high saline
habitats, both the arrival and deterioration of thalli are found
earlier, suggesting that salinity positively influences either
the maturation of sporophytes or the senescence of gametophyte plants. Overall sex ratio in nature is about 1:1 and
there are no remarkable fluctuations in the secondary sex
ratio either temporally or spatially.
Ecology and distribution
Physiology
The benthic green alga, Monostroma, grows abundantly
on high-to-mid intertidal rocks. This genus is distributed
in marine, brackish water, and estuarine habitats of South
America, North-Western Europe, East Asia, Australia and
New Zealand (Guiry and Guiry 2021). Only one or two
species are known exclusively from freshwater habitats.
Monostroma often grows on rocks or lodged driftwood
in swift-flowing streams and rivers (Taft 1964); it is also
reported from standing water in Arctic Canada. It is a spring
ephemeral and has a characteristic growth pattern distinctive
According to several studies, seaweed growth, reproduction,
and distribution are constrained by salinity, temperature,
light intensity, and photoperiod (Wilson et al. 2015; Mosquera-Murillo and Peña-Salamanca 2016). Being an estuarine alga, Monostroma species experience wide fluctuations
in temperature, salinity, and light which may cause a reduction in species number and a shift in perennial taxa (Wilkinson 1980; Mathieson and Penniman 1986, 1991). The light,
temperature, and salinity conditions affect the net photosynthesis of Monostroma. For instance, the light compensation
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point for M. grevillei is approximately 8 μmol photons
m−2 s−1, beyond which photosynthesis increases rapidly up
to around 120 μmol photons m−2 s−1 (Guo and Mathieson
1992). The temperature optima range from 10–15 °C, with
the optima being more circumscribed in 10% (i.e., 10 °C)
than 30% salinity (i.e., 10–15 °C). The salinity optimum is
approximately 10%, although relatively high rates of photosynthesis also occurred between 0 and 40% salinity (Guo
and Mathieson 1992).
Similarly, Choi et al. (2010) reported that Monostroma sp.
is highly tolerant to a wide range of salinities ranging from
15 to 45 psu, which showed euryhaline nature. This euryhaline response is due to the adaptation of this species to the
fluctuating salinities in coastal water or estuarine, because
of rainwater influx, evaporation, and precipitation (Yu et al.
2013). Moreover, Kavale et al. (2020) assessed the effect
of photoperiod (8:16–16:8 L/D), salinity (15–45 psu),
temperature (15–35 °C), and light intensity (2–60 μmol
photons m−2 s−1) on the growth of Monostroma sp. The
highest growth rate was observed in the range of 5.73 to
14.41% day−1, achieved at 25 °C temperature, 35 psu salinity, 60 μmol photons m−2 s−1 light intensity, 14:10 (L/D)
photoperiod, and 1/4 MP1 medium. It was discovered that
the modified 1/4MP1 medium was suitable for promoting
Monostroma sp. growth. The maximum daily growth rate
was seen in an outdoor tank culture using 1/4 MP1 medium
(14.38 ± 0.32% day−1).
Saco et al. (2018) studied the photosynthesis and growth in
M. nitidum in the laboratory from a naturally occurring intertidal population. Photosynthesis did not differ significantly
under various temperatures that might reflect the growing
season of the species from autumn to mid-spring. In parallel,
the growth rate (cultured for 5 and 10 days) was the same
under various temperatures but decreased at 25 °C (cultured
for 15 days), suggesting that prolonged exposure to higher
temperatures might have an adverse effect. Similarly, the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) decreases as
temperature increases suggesting some physiological stress on
photosystem II (PSII) at a higher temperature. Contrarily, the
light compensation point, saturating irradiance, initial slope,
and efficiency of light absorption by PSII (ΦPSII) increases
as temperature increases. This suggests that the species optimized the photosynthesis to low and high light conditions
that might reflect the growing season of the species characterized by irradiance limitation in winter and higher irradiance
in spring. No photoinhibitory responses occurred indicating
tolerance to higher irradiance. In parallel, the growth rate
increases significantly as irradiance increases, indicating a
higher growth rate response at higher irradiance. Overall,
the photosynthetic responses were parallel to the growth rate
response of M. nitidum. Thus the fundamental information on
the photosynthetic characteristics can be used to improve its
cultivation techniques.
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Cultivation and harvesting
Monostroma is the most intensely cultivated genus of
green algae, constituting about 90% of the total green algal
cultivation (Nisizawa et al. 1987), almost exclusively for
the Japanese food product, hitoegusa. As a non-clonal type
of seaweed, appropriate seedling culture is needed before
each farming season. The seeding method used in the cultivation can be artificial (e.g., Shimanto Estuary, Kochi
prefecture) or natural (e.g., Ise Bay). Seedlings obtained
from the naturally deposited zoospores on the culture nets
are harvested in the natural seeding method. However,
in the artificial seeding method, many zygotes obtained
from in vitro fertilization of isolated gametes by the end
of the growth period are grown throughout the summer.
The resulting Codiolum-sporophytes are then treated with
a high-intensity light to induce zoospore release. Culture
nets are immersed in the concentrated zoospore solution
under dark conditions to facilitate the successful attachment of released zoospores to the nets. These “seeded”
nets are subsequently installed in the attached fabrication
of wooden sticks in the coastal waters, and the height of
nets is adjusted to provide adequate immersion and dryingout effects with each tidal range. Thalli are harvested and
processed upon reaching the largest size, approximately
20–25 cm (Bast 2014).
Nutritional value and biochemical
composition
Monostroma and Ulva species are well known for their
nutritional values and both have distinctive biochemical
composition (Gupta et al. 2015). One of the important
commercially utilized seaweed foods in Japan, “Green
laver” or “aonori,” is a mixture of Ulva and Monostroma which contains high amounts of protein (20–26%),
calcium (0.69–1.12%), vitamins (A = 590–13,000 IU,
B1 = 0.8–6.0 ppm, B2 = 5.7–20.5 ppm, Niacin = 35–118 ppm, C = 120–540 ppm) and iron
(25–62 ppm) and low content of fat and sodium (Nisizawa
et al. 1987; McHugh 2003). Of these green algae, Monostroma latissimum amounts to 90% of the total products
(Nisizawa et al. 1987). McDermid and Stuercke (2003)
analyzed the nutritional composition of M. oxyspermum
collected from Hawaiian Islands. They observed the water
content relative to total fresh weight was 92.9 ± 0.6, and
the ash, protein, carbohydrate, lipid and energy contents
relative to total dry weight were 22.4 ± 0.5%, 9.6 ± 0.2,
31.8 ± 0.8%, 3.8 ± 0.1%, and 3033 ± 113.3 cal g −1
(Mean ± SE) respectively. In addition, they reported it
Journal of Applied Phycology
contains 70 IU g−1 β-carotene, 0.70 mg g−1 niacinamide,
and 1.3 mg g−1 Vitamin C. Based on dry weight, the essential mineral element content in algae was: 2.58 N, 0.35 P,
3.14 K, 1.36 Mg, 0.58 Ca, 6.23 S, 52 µg g−1 B, 32 µg g−1
Zn, 10 µg g−1 Mn, 142 µg g−1 Fe, 28 µg g−1 Cu.
Risso et al. (2003) studied the chemical composition
of green seaweed, M. undulatum Wittrock, growing on
the Southern Argentina coast. The ranges expressed per
100 g dry algae were: protein (N × 6.25): 12.89–21.85;
ashe (g): 33.92–40.05; lipid (g): 0.32–1.47; total fiber (g):
14.36–19.6; digestible carbohydrates (calculated by difference) (g): 20.86–32.48; sodium (g): 7.39–13.11; potassium
(g): 1.38–3.18; calcium (mg): 149–226; phosphorus (mg):
190–447; Vitamin C (mg): 159–455. Their results indicate
that this green seaweed is an important source of protein,
fibre, macronutrients, minerals and vitamin C during the
macroscopic period.
Utilization and potential biotechnological
applications
The potential biotechnological applications of the Monostroma are shown in Fig. 2.
Wastewater treatment
Seaweeds are used to treat agricultural wastes and sewage
to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus-containing compounds
before releasing them into oceans or rivers. Enrichment
or excessive deposition of nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus-containing materials into water bodies is called
eutrophication. The process of eutrophication is natural.
However, it can be increased by allowing water rich in dissolved fertilizers to seep into nearby streams and lakes or by
introducing effluent of sewage into rivers and coastal waters.
This will cause unwanted and excessive growth of aquatic
or marine plants. Another essential feature of many types
of seaweed is their ability to take up more phosphorus than
required for maximum growth. Estuarine and intertidal species are the most tolerant, especially green seaweeds such as
Ulva and Monostroma (Pati et al. 2016).
Microalgal growth enhancement
According to several studies, adding extracts from Monostroma species promotes the growth of microalgae. For
instance, Cho et al. (1998) found that the aqueous extract
of M. nitidum stimulates the growth of several microalgae.
Seaweed extracts were added to the culture medium of the
marine microalga Tetraselmis suecica to regulate the proliferation of its cells (Cho et al. 2005). Among them, the
water extract M. nitidum was the most efficient, increasing
cell density by up to twofold when 1 mg mL−1 of extract
was added to the culture medium. There were slight differences in cell size, gross biochemical content, fatty acids, and
digesting efficiency between T. suecica cultures cultivated
with and without the M. nitidum extract. Luyen et al. (2007)
isolated the compound levoglucosan from M. nitidum that
enhances the growth of various microalgal species.
Fig. 2 Utilization and potential
biotechnological applications of
Monostroma
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Journal of Applied Phycology
Food industry
Monostroma is popularly consumed in various forms and
it is an important ingredient in salads, soups, jams and
spices. It is highly consumed in countries such as Japan,
China, Brazil, and the Pacific Coast of America (Kumar
et al. 2021), and it is available with local names like hitoegusa, tsukudani-nori, ajitsukenori, hoshi-nori and yaki-nori
(Braga et al. 1997; Pellizzari et al. 2007). This seaweed has
significant nutritional value with a substantial amount of
carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre
(Risso et al. 2003; FAO 2018). Many food products are made
from Monostroma and are available in the market place in
these regions. Perhaps hitoegusa (M. latissimum), is the most
important of all edible green sea plants in Japan in terms of
economy and production quantity. The market value of this
sea plant is the highest among all the cultivated edible green
seaweeds, with 1 kg costing about US$ 30 (Lindsey ZemkeWhite and Ohno 1999). Harvested hitoegusa is boiled down
in soy sauce to make a jam-like product (tsukudani-nori),
while dried sheets (Hoshi-nori) are used as sushi wraps. In
their study, Chang and Wu (2008) incorporated green seaweed (M. nitidum) powder in different proportions with or
without eggs to develop noodles. They found that by adding seaweed powder, the fibre content increased, leading to
an increase in water absorption by the fibres during cooking. Higher water absorption by the seaweed led to softer
and spongier textural intensities in the noodles. They also
reported that breaking energy, springiness, and extensibility of freshly cooked noodles reduced, and cooking yield
increased significantly with increased concentrations of
seaweed. In conclusion, the results showed that additional
seaweed powder can significantly affect the quality of fresh
Chinese noodles either with or without the addition of eggs.
Cosmetic industry
The world market for Monostroma is increasing due to
demand from the cosmetics industry. Monostroma uses
in cosmetics are broad and include skin hydration or the
tension and lifting effect of the aqueous mucilage extract
(Pellizzari and Reis 2011). Chen and Chen (2003) studied
the replacing of the humectant and half of the thickening
agent of moisture masks with M. nitidium water-soluble
mucilage on the rheological parameters of colour, storage
stability, water-holding capacity, and film forming time.
The moisture masks containing water-soluble mucilage
were pseudoplastic fluids (shear thinning fluids), and their
apparent viscosity decreased with increasing shear rate and
the film formation time of the moisture masks decreased
(saving consumer time) with increasing concentration of
the aqueous extract. Furthermore, the Draize score test that
measures the extent and potential of skin allergy revealed
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no erythema (superficial reddening of the skin, usually in
patches). Chen and Chen (2003) also reported a potential for
stimulating collagen synthesis, antioxidant and photoprotector bioactivities.
Pharmaceutical industry
Monostroma is a rich source of biologically active compounds, including a sulfated polysaccharide called “rhamnan” which exhibits antioxidant, antiviral, and anticoagulant
activity (Zhang et al. 2008; Li et al. 2011). Rhamnan sulphates (RS) from Monostroma have a wide range of health
promoting activities and demonstrate preventative effects
from viral infection, hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia,
thrombotic disease and so on (Fig. 3). The main repeating
unit of RS consist of rhamnose with a sulfate-group substituent that forms long linear chains with branched side chains.
In vitro, Lee et al. (1999) found that RS, derived from M.
latissimum inhibited the replication of herpes simplex virus
type 1 (HSV-1), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), and
human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viruses in
cell cultures of Vero (African green monkey kidney) and
HEL (Human Embryonic Lung) MT-4 cells.
Wang et al. (2020) isolated a homogeneous polysaccharide (MWS) from M. nitidum, which had broad-spectrum
antiviral effects against influenza virus, HSV and enterovirus
(EV71). MWS inhibited EV71 infection by targeting PI3K/
Akt pathway or virus particle. MWS could be a potential
antiviral agent. Terasawa et al. (2020) studied the antiviral
activity of RS derived from M. nitidum against influenza
A virus (IFV) infection in vitro and in vivo. The findings
revealed that RS reduces influenza virus infection while
promoting antibody synthesis, implying that RS could be
used to treat influenza virus infections. Lee et al. (2010)
also reported that RS from Monostroma showed potent
antiviral activity against the herpes simplex virus type 2
virus, whereas it had no influence on the replication of the
influenza A virus. Moreover, the anticoagulant activity of
heparinoid-active sulfated polysaccharides obtained from M.
nitidum was reported by Maeda et al. (1991).
Zang et al. (2015) investigated the effects of RS on
metabolic disorders using zebrafish with diet-induced
obesity (DIO). They found that oral administration of RS
(250 µg g−1 BW day−1) attenuated body weight gain, dyslipidemia (plasma triacylglycerol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) and hepatic steatosis in DIO. As a result,
consuming RS as a functional meal may be beneficial in
preventing obesity and lowering the prevalence of obesityrelated disorders. Tako et al. (2017) reported that RS from
M. nitidum has unique gelling characteristics and suggests
that RS can be used in foods, cosmetics and some other
industries as gelling, thickening, stabilizing and waterholding agents. RSfrom M. nitidum also was evaluated for
Journal of Applied Phycology
Fig. 3 Health promotion activities of rhamnan sulfate extracted
from Monostroma
binding to the S-protein from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and inhibition of viral
infectivity in vitro by Song et al. (2021). Firstly, surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) was used to confirm that heparin
has an affinity for the S-protein receptor binding domain
(RBD) of the wild type SARS-CoV-2 and other variations. In a competition SPR assay, the IC50 of RS against
the S-protein (RBD) binding to immobilized heparin was
1.6 ng mL−1, which was significantly lower than the IC50
for heparin (750 ng mL−1). In comparison to heparin at the
same dose (5 ng mL−1), RS also demonstrated a greater ability to bind the S-protein RBD from a variety of variants, and
the pseudovirus particles of the wild type and delta variant.
Thus, they found that the RS from M. nitidum is effective
against the variant S-proteins of SARS-CoV-2 mutants, suggesting that it may be a potential candidate for COVID-19
treatment or prevention.
Seaweeds contain a number of bioactive compounds
which may have potential as a product in the nutraceutical, functional food, and pharmaceutical industries. Some
of the pharmaceutical applications of compounds derived
from Monostroma are summarised below (Table 1). In recent
years, there has been an rise in patent activity in this field,
and several unique macroalgal-based products have entered
the market (Kraan 2012). In the case of carbohydrates, the
Kabushiki Kaisha Yakult Honsha Company in Japan has
patented rhamnan or RS polysaccharides isolated from maritime brown macroalgae and the green alga M. nitidum. The
goal of this substance is to use it as a preventative agent and
treatment for stomach ulcers (Nagaoka et al. 2000).
Conclusions and future directions
There is a substantial volume of data available on its
morphology, life history, and ecology of Monostroma.
As for its morphology, it differs considerably according
to the environment within which it grows. It is the most
intensively cultivated genus among the green seaweeds,
accounting for over 90% of total green algal cultivation.
More recent studies have led to the development of new
methods of cultivation that have since been applied widely.
Monostroma is a rich source of biologically active compounds, including a sulfated polysaccharide called “rhamnan” which exhibits antioxidant, antiviral, and anticoagulant activity. In addition, it is consumed in various forms
and is an important ingredient in salads, soups, jams and
spices. However, more research is required in the field of
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Table 1 Pharmaceutical applications of bioactive compounds derived from Monostroma
Species
Product
Biological activity
References
Monostroma
latissimum
M. latissimum
M. latissimum
M. latissimum
M. latissimum
M. latissimum
Monostroma nitidum
RS
Inhibit HCMV, HSV-1, and Human immunodeficiency
virus type 1 (HIV-1)
Anticoagulant activitiy
Antiviral activity
Anticoagulant activity
Anticoagulant activity
Antiviral activity
Antioxidant, Antiviral, Anticoagulant activity
(Lee et al. 1999)
Sulfated polysaccharide
Sulfated rhamnan
Sulfated polysaccharide
Sulfated polysaccharide
RS
RS
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
Homogeneous polysaccharide (MWS)
RS
RS
RS
RS
RS
RS
RS
RS
Inhibit Influenza A virus (IFV) infection
Antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus type 2 virus
Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 viral infection
Anti-hyaluronidase
Anti-hypercholesterolemia
Anti-hyperglycemia
Anti-obesity
Anti-thrombosis
M. nitidum
M. nitidum
RS
RS
Antivirus
Anticoagulant and antithrombotic activity
M. nitidum
Inhibit HSV and EV71 infection
manufacturing technology for food products using Monostroma to help increase demand for this seaweed.
Furthermore, Monostroma harbours specific bacterial
strains necessary for its morphological induction. Many
studies showed that seaweed-associated microbes provide
unique and novel metabolites of unprecedented structures,
with antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory,
antiplasmodial, anticancer, antiangiogenic and nematicidal
activities. These bioactive compounds may provide highquality drug candidates for pharmaceutical, agricultural
and industrial applications. Extensive randomized control
clinical trials will be required to determine the in vivo
fate of these bacterial extracts on cohorts. In addition, the
exploration of Monostroma-associated microbes using new
tools and techniques, such as those of high-throughput
genomic and metagenomic approaches, might lead to the
development of new bioactive natural products in the future
and will help in utilizing their biotechnological potential.
Acknowledgements All authors acknowledge the Central University
of Punjab for providing support, necessary resources and infrastructure
during the study.
Authors contribution FB conceptualized the study. MK contributed to
data acquisition, writing, reviewing, editing and preparing Figs. 2 and 3
of the manuscript. SK contributed to data acquisition and writing of the
manuscript. AP contributed to writing and editing of the manuscript.
13
(Zhang et al. 2008)
(Wang et al. 2018)
(Mao et al. 2009)
(Li et al. 2011)
(Lee et al. 1999)
(Zhang et al. 2008;
Li et al. 2011)
(Wang et al. 2020)
(Terasawa et al. 2020)
(Lee et al. 2010)
(Song et al. 2021)
(Yamamoto et al. 2016)
(Zang et al. 2015)
(Kamimura et al. 2010)
(Zang et al. 2015)
(Li et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2017,
2018a, b; Okamoto et al.
2019)
(Wang et al. 2018, 2020)
(Cao et al. 2019)
FB secured the funding for the study from DST-SERB, GOI. The final
manuscript was read and approved by all authors.
Funding The study is supported by DST-SERB Core Research Grant
(CRG/20l9/005499). MK like to thank the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, India, for the financial support for Ph.D.
Declarations
Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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