The Himalayan Garden

The
Himalayan
Garden
Growing Plants
from the Roof
of the World

J1MJERMYN

TIMBER PRESS
Portland., Oregon
Pages 2-3: Everest and Lhotse, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH
Pages 4-5: Meadow scene with foliage of Meconofsis nafaulensis., Lamjung,
central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT
Title pages: Meconopsis napaulensis, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER
SCHACHT

Copyright © 2001 by Jim Jermyn. All rights reserved.

Published in 2001 by Timber Press, Inc.

The Haseltine Building
133 S.W. Second Avenue, Suite 450
Portland, Oregon 97204, U.S.A.

Designed by Susan Applegate

Printed in China

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jermyn, Jim.
The Himalayan garden: growing plants from the roof of the world/Jim Jermyn.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0-88192-500-4
1. Alpine gardens. 2. Alpine garden plants. 3. Alpine gardens—Himalaya
Mountains. 4. Alpine garden plants—Himalaya Mountains. 5. Native plants for
cultivation—Himalaya Mountains. I. Tide.

SB459.J472001
635.9'528'095496-dc21 00-064830
 To Alison,
not only for her patience with the word-processing
but also for her enthusiasm and encouragement
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

FOREWORD by Dieter Schacht, 13

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, 17

CHAPTER ONE. Ecological Divisions of the Himalaya, 21

CHAPTER TWO. Plant Hunting, Conservation and the Future, 33
CHAPTER THREE. Temperate Zone, 43
CHAPTER FOUR. Subalpine Zone, 147
CHAPTER FIVE. Alpine Zone, 201
CHAPTER six. Propagation, 283
CHAPTER SEVEN. Pests and Diseases, 299

APPENDIX: Sources of Choice Himalayan Plants and

Newly Introduced Seed, 305
GLOSSARY, 307
BIBLIOGRAPHY, 310
INDEX, 313

ii
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 Foreword

T
HAT MIGHTY range of mountains, the Himalaya, is a treasure
house of plants that has long held a magical attraction for bota-
nists, plant hunters and garden lovers. To seek its plants in their
natural surroundings is an unforgettable adventure. The serious traveller
will also study climatic and soil conditions so as to find clues to their
needs in cultivation, and may, if permissible, collect living material and
seeds. There have been many explorers who have spared no effort, braved
every hardship and risked their health to find new plants for our gardens.
Some of them, notably Kingdon Ward and Ludlow and Sherriff, have
left vivid narratives of their collecting journeys.
In the 1970s I was privileged to take part in several treks in the Hima-
laya. Having worked in the Munich Botanic Garden for thirty-three
years, I saw the plants in a new light through these expeditions. One
April in Langtang, Nepal, we saw the superb leaf rosettes of Meconopsis
napaulensis growing in dry powdery soil, and a year later the very same
plants were opening their delicate yellow flowers in their full glory. It was
then July, in the monsoon season; everything was dripping with mois-
ture and all the vegetation was erupting into growth.
For thirty-two seasons I have worked in the Schachen Alpine Garden
at 6100 ft. (1860 m) in the Bavarian Alps, and these treks gave me the
opportunity to apply what I had learned in the Himalaya to the day-to-

13
14 FOREWORD

day tasks of alpine gardening. I enjoyed a quiet sense of happiness when-

ever some tricky plant, perhaps one that I had brought back, opened its
flowers. Amongst these in the summer of 1977 were Primula wigmmi-
ana from Lamjung and Androsace mucronifolia from Kashmir; both were
confirmed to be the true species by the late George Smith, a Primula con-
noisseur of our generation.
Every gardener who cares for plants in a favoured spot outdoors or in
a trough on the patio can share this quiet happiness, and such triumphs
need not be confined to rarities. What would our gardens be without Hi-
malayan plants—the swarms of splendid primulas, the hundreds of rho-
dodendrons, the delicate pleiones, and the brilliant blue meconopses?
My father Wilhelm Schacht and his immense knowledge of plants and
joy in their beauty stimulated me to spend my life in the world of garden-
ing. I owe him a great debt of gratitude.
In 1974 I first met Jim Jermyn and in the ensuing decades I got to
know him well. Jim's experience as a nurseryman and as the discoverer
of so many plants in the wild gives him impeccable credentials to write on
the Himalayan flora as seen in our gardens. He is no mere copier of other
men's writings; his book is based on his experience as a practical gardener,
as witnessed by his achievements as owner of Edrom Nurseries. His book
will certainly give immense pleasure to gardeners and plant lovers and
will encourage them to persevere in what is perhaps the most enthralling
of all hobbies. In a world blighted by futile overactivity and the unceas-
ing pursuit of money, gardening can be the best of all counterbalances.

DIETER SCHACHT
Munich
translated by D. Winstanley
 FOREWORD 15

Dieter Schacht (right) with his father Wilhelm in the Schachen Garden, southern
Germany DIETER SCHACHT
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 Preface and
Acknowledgements

O
VER THE last twenty years I have gained immense pleasure as a
lecturer visiting horticultural societies great and small. The
main theme of my talks has encompassed the subject of alpine
plants, but I have often focused on the cultivation of genera endemic to
the Himalaya, in its widest definition, which forms an arc of about 1500
miles (2410 km) ranging from northern Pakistan eastward across Kash-
mir in northern India, taking in part of southern Tibet, most of Nepal,
the Indian state of Sikkim, the independent kingdom of Bhutan and
finally south-western China. This region is sometimes called the Sino-
Himalaya. At the conclusion of my lectures many individuals have asked
if I would consider writing down my experiences in the form of a book-
so here is the result of those requests! To provide a broad view of the
most popular Himalayan subjects, I have included, where appropriate,
information about related species from south-western China while aim-
ing to preserve the overall theme of the book.
Readers should be aware that I have never travelled to the Himalaya.
This book, however, covers the cultivation of plants—it is not an ap-
praisal of the various species in their native habitat. A deep understand-
ing of their endemic growing conditions has been essential for me to
grow these plants successfully, and this understanding has been achieved
in no small way as a result of enjoying hours of private slide viewings, an

17
18 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

intimate venue which has enabled me to feel almost that I have been to
Nepal and the Sino-Himalaya.
I wish to assure the reader that this is a horticultural publication con-
taining material as scientifically correct as it is balanced between science
and horticulture. This book is based on my opinion and experience of
growing Himalayan plants and listening to other experienced growers
the length and breadth of Britain as well as in the United States, Canada,
Europe and Japan. Throughout the book, I refer to times of the year as
they are experienced in my south-eastern Scotland garden. Gardeners in
the southern hemisphere and in different climatic zones are likely to
know, or will learn through experience, how to adjust their gardening
practices accordingly.
Many gardeners are captivated by these plants but are put off by neg-
ative comments regarding their culture. Amongst exciting plants from
anywhere in the world, particularly from the realm of alpine species,
many are quite simply impossible to grow successfully, or at least only
with the most extreme care. But I will not be focusing on these overly
specialised plants, as they are best viewed in botanic gardens on refriger-
ated benches and the like. Instead, I will introduce a vast paradise of
plants—from woody subjects, climbing plants, bulbous species and of
course a wealth of alpines—all relatively available and growable within
the scope of most able gardeners. I will endeavour to give practical advice
on these Himalayan plants, including where to plant them and naturally
how to set about propagating them.
Before becoming proprietor of Edrom Nurseries, my apprenticeship
started at Ingwersen's Nursery in Sussex, England; then through a num-
ber of year-long assignments, first at the Munich Botanic Garden under
the tutelage of Dieter Schacht, then at Jack Drake's Nursery in Aviemore,
Scotland; and finally setting up a new nursery in northern Italy on the
side of Lake Garda. I have been privileged to meet many horticulturists
who have shared their experiences with me. This accumulated knowl-
edge is very much responsible for my having been able to grow these
wonderful and diverse Himalayan species, and for enabling me to pen
my own experiences.
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 19

It remains for me now to offer my sincere thanks to all the many indi-
viduals who have helped me map out my career in horticulture. It is to
my parents that I am most greatly indebted, for all their support and en-
couragement in the formative stages of my education and for enabling
me to move north to Scotland and advance my career as owner of Edrom
Nurseries. The close proximity of the Royal Botanic Garden in Edin-
burgh to our home has been instrumental in providing inspiration, and
I am very thankful for all the help that the many staff members have given
me over the years. I wish to thank John and Marissa Main for giving me
access to the Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh dur-
ing the writing of this book.
Finally I am indebted to those who have contributed the photographs
that bring this book to life. I thank Robert Smith for lending me slides
from the collection of his late brother George Smith. A very special men-
tion must be made of Dieter Schacht. His contribution of slide material
made the writing of this book possible.
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 CHAPTER ONE

Ecological Divisions
of the Himalaya

O
VER THE last twenty-five years of growing plants from the Hi-
malaya, I have come to realise that the one greatest benefit to-
wards growing them successfully is understanding the condi-
tions of their native habitat. I first gardened in the south-east of England
and since 1980 have been growing Himalayan plants in the south-eastern
borders of Scotland where the conditions are markedly better for plants
enjoying a cooler habitat. Yet whilst in business and exhibiting in London
I frequently have met up with enquiries such as: "Here I am living in the
south-east of England with this driving urge to grow the Himalayan blue
poppy. I know it prefers an acid soil and requires a cooler growing season,
plenty of summer moisture and a relatively dry winter dormant period. It
seems as if all the blue poppy's requirements are the very antithesis of my
conditions here in England. What will I do? I can't move house. How do
I know how to doctor the prevailing habitat?" Thus, we need to under-
stand the basic habitat in which the favourite plant grows back in the Hi-
malaya. Of course we cannot re-enact these conditions in our own sub-
urban gardens, but we can modify the given conditions, supplementing
the situation to suit the plant. I like the word improvise—it is positive and
suggests getting on with the situation in which we find ourselves, though
it sometimes implies a lack of planning. I therefore prescribe a measure of
planned improvisation.

21
22 CHAPTER ONE

The term "Himalaya" as we popularly call this mountain range means

in the ancient Sanscrit language of India "Abode of Snow." What a fine
description of this vast stretch of peaks. Forming an arc of about 1500
miles (2410 km) in length, the Himalaya ranges from the river Indus in
northern Pakistan and eastward across Kashmir in northern India, taking
in part of southern Tibet (Xizang), most of Nepal, the Indian state of
Sikkim and independent Bhutan. This Himalayan arc includes the Ti-
betan Plateau, the highest and largest plateau in the world, which incor-
porates the world's highest peak, Mt. Everest at 29,000 ft. (8850 m). Sit-
uated between the tropical and temperate zones of the earth, the plateau
has an elevation of 13,100 to 16,400 ft. (4000-5000 m) and is often re-
ferred to as the "Roof of the World." Many of its alpine plants are to be
found at altitudes in excess of 19,700 ft. (6000 m). A stretch of the imag-
ination is required to grasp the diversity of flora that this vast Himala-
yan system incorporates and the many species still to be discovered and
understood.
The Himalaya encompasses a pronounced variation in natural habi-
tat. Clearly therefore I must explain a little about these marked divi-
sions—the temperate, subalpine and alpine zones—ecological divisions
from which we will choose our favourite species. With an understand-
ing of these varying conditions we must then assess our own situation,
wherever we are gardening.
A bird's-eye view of the Himalaya gives a clear sight of the snow-cov-
ered peaks, an indication of the inevitable climate prevailing there. Nev-
ertheless generalising too much about the climate can be misleading as
each well-known range within the massif of the Himalaya has its own
defined climatic variation. Nepal in particular is home to many plants fa-
voured in gardens around the world. In Nepal the hot, humid summer
winds blow in from a southerly aspect, and as they strike the southern
flanks of the mountains they are forced to rise. The winds cool and then
deposit vast amounts of rain, characterised by the monsoon which drops
up to 100 in. (250 cm) annually, not surprisingly encouraging the forests
of Rhododendron for which the Himalaya is so famous. In these condi-
tions many plants thrive, including many members of the Ericaceae, the
heather family. The west coast of Scotland, which is subject to higher-
24 CHAPTER ONE

than-average rainfall than that expected in the British Isles as a whole,

makes a comfortable home for plants endemic to the cool, damp habi-
tats in the Himalaya. Scotland is not alone, as other parts of the world
also enjoy higher-than-average summer rainfall and cool temperatures.
Once the southerly winds have passed over the tops of the southern
flanks of the Himalaya, the excess water has been shed and little in the
way of rain will fall during the summer in the high inner valleys. With as
little as 25 in. (64 cm) of annual moisture, some of which is winter snow,
the inner valleys present ecological subdivisions important for gardeners
to grasp. The map of the Nepal Himalaya highlights some of the most
popular areas for plant hunters, including many locations mentioned in
this book. The simple diagram of the vegetation zones in the Himalaya
roughly shows the altitudes distiguishing the ecological subdivisions.
The climatic variation between the ecological subdivisions through-
out the vast range is significant and is relevant when considering the chal-
lenges of cultivation at home. Three seasons are generally recognizable in
the Himalaya: a cold period from October to February, a hot period from
March to June and the monsoon season with heavy rains, particularly in
26 CHAPTER ONE

the east, from June to September. The monsoon begins to affect eastern
Nepal in early June and spreads westward to the rest of Nepal in early
July.
Within the great range are countless inner valleys, most of which are
cradled within the massif. These broad, glacier-worn valleys, which are
prominent for example in the Everest, Langtang and upper Kali Gandaki
areas, are little affected by the strong winds that often desiccate the main
valley floors. The partial rain screen of these high inner valleys creates still
different ecosystems. To the north of the main Himalayan range is a high
desert region similar to the Tibetan Plateau. Though hardly a desert as
we normally picture, this area is called the Trans-Himalaya and encom-
passes the arid valleys of Mustang, Manang and Dolpo. This habitat is
in the main a rain shadow area and receives significantly less precipita-
tion than the southern slopes. It presents a notable variation that must be
taken into account as we consider species from this general area, such as
the very choice Androsace tapete, found commonly in west-central Nepal
in these drier conditions.
Generalising on the rock formation and soil types throughout the re-
gions is fairly safe, which helps greatly when choosing a satisfactory po-
sition in the garden. On the whole the Himalaya consists primarily of
metamorphic rocks with extensive areas of igneous rocks in the south.
Limestone mountains are an exception, and we have to move well across
to the east into Yunnan to meet up with the Jade Dragon Mountains in
the Lichiang Range, forming an impressive chain of craggy limestone
peaks. The Lichiang Range is somewhat detached from the real Hima-
laya, but it does exemplify the need for caution when it comes to basic
geology and choosing the correct soil type for our favourite Sino-Hima-
layan species. The plants discussed in this book will grow more success-
fully if the natural pH of the soil is neutral to acid, measuring 6.5 or less.
Let us get a taste of the ecological divisions within the Himalaya by
following the typical trek of the plant hunters as they enter the popular
Marsyandi Valley in central Nepal. Until 1977 these headwaters were
practically closed to Western travellers, but in this year the Nepalese gov-
ernment opened up a great part of this region to trekkers. Along the walk
into the valley, note the change in vegetation with the effect of altitude.
 ECOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYA 27

Khung Valley, Dolpo—part of the Trans-Himalaya, central Nepal GEORGE SMITH

28 CHAPTER ONE

After five hours by bus from Katmandu, the plant hunters set out from
the small village of Dumre at 1500 ft. (460 m) on a long walk in a north-
erly direction in relentless sunshine. The ideal time for flowers is the last
two weeks in July and the first two weeks in August. The first few days of
the trek bring limited altitude gain until they reach the village of Bahun-
danda at around 4250 ft. (1300 m), which gives splendid views both up
and down the Marsyandi. Reaching this still lush and subtropical alti-
tude, the trekkers are led into patches of woodland full of ferns and or-
chid-encrusted trees. The climate here is hot enough for bananas and
mangoes. The village of Syange leads into a deep gorge presenting a tran-
sition from the subtropical to the temperate, exemplified initially by fine
stands ofLilium nepalense on grassy banks from 4900 ft. (1490 m) up-
wards. Within the gorge, conifers gradually dominate the vegetation,
typified by Pinus wallichiana., Picea smithiana, Tsuga dumosa and Taxus
wallichiana. At about 6000 ft. (1830 m) familiar herbaceous plants ap-
pear such as Anemone rivularis., A. vitifolium, Bergenia ciliata., Potentilla,
Geranium., Euphorbia and Thalictrum. This transition continues up to
9500 ft. (2900 m) where the plant hunters break free from predominant
forest and into open countryside after seven days into the trek. At this al-
titude all tender plants are left behind. Remember that this is central
Nepal—the same altitudinal differences and ecological divisions are not
necessarily true in north-western Nepal where the coniferous forest gives
way to meadows at 13,900 ft. (4240 m). The little state of Sikkim in
India, just east of Nepal, presents a picture similar to that of central
Nepal, as do parts of Bhutan and Tibet.
Breaking into the open meadows of the Marsyandi Valley at 9500 ft.
(2900 m), the plant hunters can see that agriculture still thrives in the
wide valley floor below, provided irrigation can be arranged by divert-
ing streams to flood the fields during the growing season. These high
damp meadows provide an abundance of Primula species so familiar in
our gardens such as P. sikkimensis. Hardened enthusiasts of alpine plants
for which the Himalaya already provides a rich provision of garden spe-
cies should brace themselves! The most abundant diversity inhabits a
broad band along the upper edge of the alpine meadows and at the base
of the extensive unstable screes, which stretch from 12,950 to 14,000 ft.
 ECOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYA 29

View of a Nepalese valley showing each of the ecological zones DIETER SCHACHT
3O CHAPTER ONE

Meadow scene with yaks, before the monsoon, Langtang, central Nepal
DIETER SCHACHT
 ECOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYA 3!

(3950-4270 m). Higher still into the stable screes, specialised alpine
plants are found such as Cremanthodium purpureifolium., Delphinium
nepalense and Saussureagossypiphora. These plants present gardeners every-
where with a genuine challenge.
This spotlight on central Nepal and the rich valley of Marsyandi is just
a tiny glimpse of what the Himalaya has to offer and of the challenges
we face growing many of these sensational plants in the garden. Gener-
alising is never sufficient, but this example of the Marsyandi Valley sets a
useful guide, which can act as a benchmark.
To highlight how easy it is to misunderstand the conditions in nature
I want to mention a group of Himalayan Primula that has always fasci-
nated me. It is the section Petiolares, the petiolarid primulas, of which
quite a number of species are popularly grown throughout the world.
Their needs are often misjudged partly due to the varying conditions in
which they grow in nature. While P. ccdderiana and P. pulchm could loosely
be described as snow-melt plants—those that emerge from a dry winter
rest under a blanket of snow to a brief period of flowering and vegeta-
tive growth—many other species such as P. boothii, P. irregularis and P.
whitei are primrose-like in habit. Occurring in temperate forests quite
often at moderate altitudes, they very often remain active during the dry
winter season from October to May. As the monsoon rains end in late
September the herbage of most herbaceous plants withers as they enter a
period of dormancy until the return of the rains in early June. At this time
many of the leafy petiolarid primulas, typically P. boothii and P. irregularis.,
lose their large summer leaves and replace them with smaller, tighter ro-
settes of leaves covered in a farina, or mealy coating, that presumably
helps to prevent desiccation. These tighter rosettes will anchor and sup-
port the plant until the flowering season, which is generally around April.
The condition of the forests where they grow provides little in the way of
competition at flowering time, when they can monopolise the attention
of passing insects for pollination. By the time the rains come, the seeds
will have ripened and sprouted, and the seedlings have a full season of
growing ahead of them, hence the brief viability of the seeds of many of
these petiolarid primulas. I wanted to highlight this glimpse at the be-
haviour of one group within one section of Primula in the Himalaya, be-
32 CHAPTER ONE

cause so often we read or are told that all petiolarids require a particular
situation in the garden, but on the contrary, a variety of habitats prevail
within the Himalaya, calling for discernment on our part as gardeners.
Those of us who treasure our new plants, whether they be purchases,
gifts or personally propagated from seed, will want to make some pre-
liminary research to find out their true origin. Armed with some basic
knowledge of the region of the Himalaya from which the species were
collected we will stand a far better chance of succeeding where many have
failed. I will concentrate my writing in the following chapters on the
well-trodden valleys of Nepal, also covering other regions and countries
where significant collections have led to introductions that have become
both popular and amenable to our gardens.
 CHAPTER TWO

Plant Hunting,
Conservation
and the Future

F
OR ME the Himalaya is a constant lure, an intractable, forbidding
place that hides treasures we might never quite grasp. When our
eyes rest on a favourite plant in the garden, ponder for a moment
what was involved in its original introduction to horticulture. When was
it first found? And in what pocket of the earth? Who collected it? How
did it reach our gardens? I have always yearned to have free movement in
countries such as Bhutan and Tibet, but I suppose that would be naive
considering the current political climate.
Entire books have been written on the subject of plant hunters, with
the Himalayan region featuring prominently amongst them. We can cor-
rectly apportion lavish praise and recognition on the intrepid pioneers
of several generations of plant exploration. I am bound to have my own
favourite plant introductions, and often my thoughts return to that great
partnership of Frank Ludlow and George Sherriff. From time to time in
this book I have been moved to make reference to and even quote these
celebrated plant collectors. The late Sir George Taylor, former director
of Kew, said of them: "The combined results of the Ludlow-Sherriff ex-
peditions—botanical, horticultural, ornithological and entomological—
are a magnificent contribution to our knowledge of the natural history of
a region of breath-taking grandeur still greatly unexplored" (Fletcher
1975).

33
34 CHAPTER TWO

Frank Ludlow and George Sherriff came from very different back-
grounds. Ludlow graduated from Cambridge in 1908 with a bachelor
of arts degree in natural science. During the course he read botany under
Professor Marshal Ward, the father of Frank Kingdon Ward. Ludlow be-
came vice-principal of Sind College in Karachi, where he was also pro-
fessor of biology and a lecturer in English. After the First World War,
when he was commissioned into the Ninety-seventh Indian Infantry, he
went into the Indian Education Service. In 1927 Ludlow retired to
Srinagar, Kashmir, intending to travel extensively in the Himalaya, col-
lecting specimens particularly of birds and only incidentally of plants for
the British Museum of Natural History. He stayed at the consulate in
Kashgar with the consul general, Williamson, and there in 1929 met
George Sherriff, a friend of Williamson's. They discussed plans to explore
Bhutan and Tibet in the years ahead.
The meeting of Ludlow and Sherriffin Kashgar was the beginning of
a long friendship. They were two very independent individuals. Ludlow,
the older of the two by fifteen years, was made very much in a scholarly
academic mould. To him anything mechanical was a closed book. Sher-
riff, the precise, efficient soldier, was an expert mechanic and electrician,
equally talented in his chosen line. Sherriff excelled at games at Sedbergh
and upon leaving was determined on a career as a professional soldier.
He went on to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich in London,
where he was commissioned into the Royal Garrison Artillery early in
1918. Soon after going to France he was gassed and spent the rest of the
war in a hospital. He entered the consular service in 1928 when he was
appointed British vice-consul in Kashgar, eventually becoming consul
before leaving in 1932.
The outbreak of the Second World War put a temporary end to the
Ludlow and Sherriff expeditions. They were both accepted for military
service in India. The war over, Ludlow met Sherriffin Kashmir in 1945
to discuss further expeditions. They both kept a daily diary of all their
travels and endeavoured to ensure the comfort of the entire party in their
company. Each evening they were suitably fortified with the "Treasure
Whisky" from the Sherriff family distillery at Bowmore, Islay.
In 1950 Sherriff retired to Scotland where at Ascreavie, Kirriemuir, he
 PLANT HUNTING, CONSERVATION AND THE FUTURE 35

and his wife created a garden strongly reminiscent of the Himalayan

scene. He died on 19 September 1967. On returning to the United King-
dom Ludlow took up a position at the British Museum where he worked
on the Ludlow-Sherriff collections. He lived on to the age of eighty-six,
dying on 27 March 1972. Theirs proved to be a truly great partnership.
Despite the great mutual respect they had for each other and their selfless-
ness and harmony of views, they always referred to each other by their
surnames, Ludlow and SherrifF, as was the practice in those days.
Inevitably an end had to come to these rewarding expeditions, but
Ludlow and Sherriff were unable to put a seal on exploratory work in the
Tsangpo area of south-eastern Tibet. This vast and topographically diffi-
cult country is surely the greatest existing sanctuary of horticultural and
botanical riches still untapped, and without doubt there remain to be dis-
covered many first-class plants of garden value. Ludlow wrote in a letter
dated 17 June 1949, "It would be grand if I could conclude my research
with an investigation of the Tsangpo Gorge, wouldn't it? Just think of
the plants there, there were twenty different Rhododendrons at Pemako-
chung in four days and we didn't go more than a couple of miles from the
monastery or ascend higher that 10,000 ft. (3050 m). Nature has run
riot there. New species by the dozen flaunting their blooms asking for
discovery and demanding a name" (Fletcher 1975). Has the situation
changed since then? No expeditions have returned to this area in Tibet to
resume collecting where Ludlow and Sherriff were forced to cease as a
result of the political climate. However, an ongoing field study is being
carried out by Chinese botanists, and the magnificent Flora of China (Sci-
ence Press 1995) is a testimony to much of their work.
Without question the golden years of exploration in the Himalaya
were between 1920 and 1950. It was Frank Kingdon Ward and Lord
Cawdor who led the way in 1924-25 when they entered Tibet via the
Chumbi Valley. Botanically and horticulturally this was one of the most
fruitful of all Kingdon Ward's expeditions. Our gardens are the richer for
three notable species from the expedition: Meconopsis betonicifolia, Prim-
ula florindae and P. alpicola. This success set the scene for subsequent col-
lecting trips to south-eastern Tibet. Kingdon Ward was with the further
expeditions which led to his sensational introduction, Lilium mack-
36 CHAPTER TWO

liniae—surely it is the queen of lilies—that he discovered in 1946 in Ma-

nipur on the borders of Burma, now Myanmar, and Assam near Imphal.
South-eastern Tibet indeed showed itself to be equal in horticultural
wealth to the "Eldorado" discovered by George Forrest in north-west-
ern Yunnan. Forrest's massive input as a collector is a little removed from
the core of the Himalaya that this book focuses on, but I must mention
his 1904—32 contributions, which resulted in wonderful introductions of
such genera as Rhododendron., Primula,, Omphahgramma,, Meconopsis, Lil-
ium, Nomocharis., Pleione and Gentiana. Gentiana, sino-ornata is perhaps
one of his most significant introductions, still not surpassed in form by
the many reintroductions made from 1991 onwards from this rich and
much-visited province of China.
The golden years of exploration were continued by Ludlow and Sher-
riff, who made such valuable introductions to our gardens from 1934
through to their last expedition in Bhutan and south-eastern Tibet in
1949. It was in July 1934 on the Nyuksang La near Sakden in Bhutan
that Sherriff found a plant which he said surpassed in beauty all the prim-
ulas and every other plant on the pass—a most magnificent form ofMe-
conopsisgmndis (L.S. 600), which he and Ludlow had first recorded from
Bhutan in 1933. It was occupying open stony ground beside the lovely
burgundy Primula, waltonii—what a sight! This could well be ranked as
SherrifPs finest introduction, from a horticultural perspective, and is now
appropriately known in gardens asM. George Sherriff Group. Each time
I reread the following passage from Ludlow's diary on his finds in the Lo
La Chu Valley in Tibet, dated 29 June 1936,1 wonder how these men
coped when they finally left this paradise of flowers: "It gave me one of
the greatest thrills of my life. On its northern slopes, in a region of in-
cessant rainfall, grew the most amazing variety of plants I had ever seen.
Day after day we scoured the hillsides, and always we returned with a
bulging press [herbarium specimens] and floral treasures new to our col-
lection" (Fletcher 1975). These plants were not only new to their collec-
tion but new to science as well. One such plant was the most lovely prim-
ula Ludlow had ever seen and which he had the honour of naming after
his mother. It was the superb but rather tricky Primula elizabethae. Lud-
low and Sherriff also made an expedition to Kashmir, introducing such
 PLANT HUNTING, CONSERVATION AND THE FUTURE 37

fine plants as P. reptans andAquilegia nivctlis. Yet it was their many years
in Bhutan and Tibet which featured so strongly amidst a significant con-
tribution to horticulture.
Further expeditions have been made since 1949, but not on the scale
of Forrest's collections in Yunnan or Kingdon Ward's and Ludlow and
SherrifPs in Bhutan and south-eastern Tibet. Nepal occupies the largest
part of the Himalaya, and sadly it was little explored botanically until

Meconopsis George Sherriff Group, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
38 CHAPTER TWO

1960, yet a few significant collections were made from 1950 onward. In
1950 Lowndes visited the Marsyandi Valley in central Nepal and intro-
duced Rhododendron lowndesii, not only an attractive subject for a peat
bed but also parent to some fine hybrids of horticultural merit. The first
expedition to western Nepal, carried out by Polunin, Sykes and Williams,
brought in some fine garden plants. One of the most important of the
early Nepalese introductions came in 1954 from an expedition by Stain-
ton, Sykes and Williams. It was a primula of the section Soldcmelloides,
named after the leader of the expedition, Primula reidii var. williamsii
(S.S.W. 1770). Stainton, Sykes and Williams also made significant collec-
tions otMeconopsis from the Lamjung Himal in central Nepal at around
14,000 ft. (4270 m). The Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden in Ed-

Foliage ofMeconopsis regia, in October, Lamjung, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
 PLANT HUNTING, CONSERVATION AND THE FUTURE 39

inburgh holds collections of M. regia, carefully preserved in the form of

pressed herbarium specimens. How sad that this stately giant amongst
Meconopsis species, a monocarp that dies after flowering, has now long
been lost to cultivation and has never been reintroduced. How many
other valuable garden introductions have been lost and now deserve a
reappearance?
The geography of eastern Nepal means that it presents a challenge to
collectors, but a successful trip was organised in 1971 by Beer along with
Lancaster and Morris to the Jaljale Himal, taking in the rich . They made
fine collections of seed including Sorbus microphytta, Lilium nepcdense and
Primula obliqua. Their collections are numbered with the prefix "B.L.M."
The Royal Botanic Garden sponsored a highly successful seed-collecting
trip to the same region in 1991 —the collection numbers hold the prefix
"E.M.A.K." At the west end of the Himalaya, a Swedish botanical expe-
dition in 1983 concentrated on northern Pakistan and the Karakoram.
Their finest introductions included Delphinium brunoninnum (S.E.P.
53); Androsctce mucronifolia (S.E.P. 134); Potentilla nepalensis (S.E.P.
259), a personal favourite of mine; the rare Primula duthieana (S.E.P.
296); and good collections of Paraquilefjiagmndiflora. Also at this west
end of the Himalaya, seed collections have been made by Chadwell in
Kashmir, leading to valuable introductions of Primula ettiptica and P.
macrophylla along with the lovzly Aquilegia fragmns.
Through the following chapters, I mention individuals from the am-
ateur gardening sphere with a sharp eye for a good garden plant, who
have made important introductions to horticulture. But does the plant
hunter still have a future, and if so is it morally sound to participate in
such a practice in the light of a genuine concern to preserve the world's
flora in the name of conservation? My feeling is that the answer is a
qualified yes. Who of us has the right to say we should not enjoy nature
to the full and, where there is a genuine need, introduce to our gardens
in a controlled manner new material or superior forms of a species
known to be free from the endangered list? Quite naturally, care should
be taken to collect only when there is a genuine horticultural need. What
can the point be in countless collections being made, as they surely are, of
species so well known in gardens and widely available within the trade
4O CHAPTER TWO

such as Meconopsis napaulensis, Primula sikkimensis and Paraq

diflora? Of much greater concern is the wholesale collecting of bulbous
material, particularly Cypripedium and Pleione from China along with Lil-
ium and Arisaema. Reports suggest that whole populations of some spe-
cies have been collected, making a mockery of conservation and show-
ing that many of us as gardeners have an unashamed appetite for plants
at any price that in many cases we have little hope of growing.
I would very much like to see botanic gardens continue to develop
fruitful liaisons with their counterparts and colleagues in Beijing and Dar-
jeeling, for example, lending weight by supporting expeditions to desir-
able areas to reintroduce material of horticultural importance. We should
remember that fresh genetic material will from time to time strengthen
existing gene pools, hopefully therefore retaining vigour amongst plants
that may well be struggling in our changing climate at home. If future
expeditions are planned to collect plants or seeds from the Himalaya, is
the rate of surviving material sufficient to qualify the sponsorship of such
trips? Again, yes is the answer. Times have changed, though, with eco-
nomic strains felt amongst many botanic gardens, some having to finance
themselves privately. Most well-known bona fide nurseries no longer
have the time or finances to dabble in the cultivation of some of the more
demanding species. Care therefore must be taken to identify the recipi-
ents of newly collected material to provide an above-average chance of
survival regardless of unforeseen circumstances. Selected amateurs may
well be the best recipients now, those enjoying growing conditions which
favour the cultivation of the particular plants and who can raise limited
stocks, disseminating them at the appropriate time.
I make no apology for belabouring this section, as it seems so timely
with many garden centres and do-it-yourself stores enjoying a boom in
their industry. So often the unwitting purchaser of plants is quite obliv-
ious to the origin of the material on offer. Blame is not always easily ap-
portioned.
While writing this piece in late February, I cast my eyes with excite-
ment at a breathtaking clump of Primula whitei with its delft-blue flowers
nestling in a posy amongst silvery, meal-covered foliage. This is a sterile
Bhutanese clone collected by Ludlow and Sherriff in 1949, possibly P.
 PLANT HUNTING, CONSERVATION AND THE FUTURE

whitei (L.S. 20619), representing part of their, then, unique introduc-

tions sent home as living material by jet air. Let me illustrate what was
involved after their careful collection in the field. Sherriff and Hicks, a
colleague who joined Ludlow and Sherriff on a few expeditions, left
Bumthang, in Bhutan, on 13 October 1949 and reached Ha on 24 Octo-
ber, there to find Ludlow awaiting them. During the course of seven
months the three of them amassed beautiful material for 5000 gather-
ings for the herbarium, as well as some 600 collections of seeds, bulbs
and tubers, the largest collection ever made from Bhutan. In addition
ninety-three lots of living plants which Sherriff proposed to fly to Lon-
don were now packed in three loosely woven bamboo hampers. Three
tiers of plants filled each hamper, the individual plants wrapped in moss
so that once in Britain they could be forwarded to specified gardens. The
plants left Calcutta by British Overseas Airways Corporation on 11 No-
vember, and Taylor, later Sir George, was at the London airport when
the plane touched down next day. On the whole the plants travelled well,
but some losses were inevitable, considering the length of journey and
the change from their cool, wet alpine haunts of Bhutan through the

Primula whitei, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

42 CHAPTER TWO

high temperatures in the lower part of the country to Kalimpong and on

to Calcutta where temperatures would no doubt have been close to
100°F (38°C). At that time this effort of Ludlow and Sherriff to intro-
duce living plants, by air, into cultivation in Britain was the greatest one
of its kind and proved a fitting climax to their years of collecting.
I am sure that lovers of Himalayan plants would heartily agree that
these men added greatly to our knowledge of the flora within this region
of the eastern Himalaya and south-eastern Tibet, and their strenuous
efforts on hazardous expeditions have enriched our gardens and en-
hanced our horticultural expertise. So, it is almost exactly fifty years later
that I feel suitably humble as I look down at the perfect beauty of Prim-
ula whitei. The species has not been officially reintroduced in this form
and great care has to be taken to maintain its tenuous hold in cultivation.
I therefore fully support legal and well-meaning collecting trips to the
Himalaya and at the same time welcome greater responsibility towards
conservation. Positive expressions have been made about the preserva-
tion of the giant panda in Sichuan, as with a more responsible approach
to woodland conservation throughout the Himalaya, so let us be upbeat
about the future and remember the part we play as the consumer. Should
we, however unwittingly, continue to purchase any sort of plant mater-
ial, bulbous or fibrous rooted, that has been dug up illegally for com-
mercial purposes, then we are adding fuel to the glowing blaze of plun-
der that will continue until the demand ceases. At the same time, the
continuation of such illegal practices further fuels the lobby who feel that
all plant collecting should be curtailed.
It may be good to reflect as we walk amongst our favourite plants, to
appreciate the efforts of the aforementioned collectors and the countless
individuals I have not referred to by name. Our gardens are the richer for
their endeavours, and as new introductions filter into horticulture both
now and in the future, let us be enthusiastic with a balanced and reason-
able approach to the whole subject.
 CHAPTER THREE

Temperate Zone

T
HE TEMPERATE zone occupies a belt loosely from 6000 to 8000
ft. (1830-2440 m), where typically in Nepal the evergreen oak
(Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron arboreum predominate as forest
cover. The subalpine zone, controlling an altitude roughly from 8000 to
12,000 ft. (2440-3660 m), offers a change in woody species, with conif-
erous subjects such as Abies and Tsuga more commonly in evidence, along
with some deciduous birch (Betuln spp.), right up to the tree line. The
flora thriving in these forest conditions is both limited and rather spe-
cialised, typified by such plants as the semi-epiphytic orchids of the genus
Pleione. This genus has been making a great impact in horticulture in the
late decades of the twentieth century, and later in this chapter I recom-
mend the Himalayan species for the woodland garden and give some
thoughts on cultivation.
A number of plants from the temperate zone of the Himalaya have be-
come very popular. Keen plantsfolk have sought to find the ideal land-
scape for plants growing naturally in the deciduous forest zone as well as
those enjoying cooler conditions despite being found in the full sun of
higher elevations. Therefore both woodland and peat gardens can be ap-
propriate garden habitats for these plants from the temperate zone.

43
44 CHAPTER THREE

The Woodland Garden

Several reasons prompt gardeners to plant up an existing woodland. An
existing deciduous canopy may well have provided years of accumulated
leaf litter, boosting the soil's humus level and offering a perfect, acid soil
type for many favoured Himalayan species. I cannot overemphasise the
need for a deciduous woodland, avoiding at all cost a solid coniferous
cover. An occasional evergreen specimen such as Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) or pine (Pinus spp.), however, could be beneficial for some spe-
cialised subjects whether they be of Himalayan origin or otherwise. In
many areas, serious gardening can be limited due to a lack of shelter, so I
can also heartily recommend a woodland to combat the ravages of severe
winds. On many occasions when gales have been thrashing our east coast
of Scotland I have retreated to the woodland and suddenly found myself
in an eerie calm of unbelievable relief. The woodland is a unique sheltered
habitat which nurtures species that otherwise would have stood no chance.
This is all very well if we already have the provision of an established
deciduous tree canopy—let us thin out and start planting. But what
about those of us who have smaller gardens with a few woody specimens
providing only dappled shade? The later section dealing with the peat
garden and its plants may provide an appealing course of action. And for
those who have unoccupied land presenting the possibility of planting a
woodland, or "spinney," then please do not give up due to the time it
takes to establish trees. In exposed sites a belt of trees should be planted
to give the leeward planting a better chance of establishment. Do not be
afraid to plant a thick belt of intermixed seedlings to kickstart establish-
ment. Try Lcwix and Tsuga,, together with Cupressus to fill out the gaps.
The woodland itself can be planted with a variety of favourite species of
trees from a whole host of deciduous genera including birch (Betula),
oak (Quercus] or rowan (Sorbus). Try to give each specimen tree ample
space, up to 20 ft. (6 m).

TREES & SHRUBS

Once the canopy trees are established, beds can be formed and midsized
trees and shrubs can be planted. Dig the soil well, and if it is extremely
heavy in nature, work in acid leaf mould or coarse sphagnum peat along
 TEMPERATE ZONE 45

with coarse sand to help loosen it. At the other extreme, if the soil is light
with a lack of body, then add lots of leaf mould and continue to do so
until the natural cover provides its annual leaf drop.
If shelter is already in place, consider planting a representation of the
larger-leafed Rhododendron species along with some of the finest magno-
lias. These plants will require patience, but just imagine the joy in seeing
a young rhododendron first produce flower buds instead of vegetative,
or growth, buds. Thus armed with such a positive attitude let us plant a

Forest zone, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

46 CHAPTER THREE

few specimens of the stunning, taller-growing rhododendrons such as.R.

lacteum or R.fictolacteumwith huge lemon-yellow or cream-coloured
trusses of flowers with lovely inner markings. Rhododendron fortunei has
bell-shaped, lilac-pink, fragrant flowers in loose trusses. The sensational
R. cinnabarinum from eastern Nepal has waxy, tubular flowers with vary-
ing shades from apricot to the red of .R. cinnabarinum var. roylei. A smal-
ler-leafed species that loves the woodland conditions and brightens up a
corner in May is .R. augustinii with blue flowers in amazing profusion.
In the hunt for specimen rhododendrons the choice is great and, not
surprisingly, fraught only with knowing where to stop. Self-control may
be enforced at some stage due to available space and the bank balance.
Having chosen specimen rhododendrons, I would next consider au-
tumn-colour subjects prior to the main body of planting. I could not cope
without a selection of some of the best rowans we know and love, or
more exactly, the pinnate-leafed section Aucuparia of the genus Sorbus.
How can we choose from so many lovely species and cultivars? Part of

Rhododendron cinnabarinum, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 TEMPERATE ZONE 47

the fun is the fact that so many are apomicts, meaning they breed true by
producing seed without fertilisation taking place. The seed is genetically
identical to the seed-bearing parent, so when friends come round and
covetously admire the specimen of Sorbus cashmiriana with its stunning,
fat, white fruits held in ample clusters, pluck off fruits and pass them on
and calmly relate how their progeny will be just as they see them there.
Another form of S. cashmiriana is a must have. Like the type species, S.
cashmiriana (S.E.P. 492) forms a small tree, but it displays wonderful
pink berries in autumn. We owe this introduction to the Swedish Goth-
enburg expedition to Pakistan. Swedish collector Harry Smith made a
valuable collection of a fabulous clone possibly belonging to S. koehneana.
Known horticulturally as S. 'Harry Smith 12799', this apomict from
Sichuan forms a small tree with lovely reddish autumn colour and masses
of white fruits. Another renowned collector, Joseph Rock, introduced an
absolute winner from north-western Yunnan in 1932. No woodland gar-
den could possibly be complete without S. 'Joseph Rock', as it simply
holds the stage with its glorious scarlet autumn foliage together with
deep, golden yellow fruits. On the east coast here in Scotland, our fruit-
laden clone of this tree is stripped in the autumn as flocks of the thrush-
like fieldfare and redwing find a welcome break and first meal after their
crossing of the North Sea along their westward migration. This satisfying
sight is surely another fine reason for planting members of fruiting Sorbus
in the woodland garden.
In 1969 the Royal Horticultural Society gave the Award of Garden
Merit to Sorbus sargentiana, which was introduced by Ernest Wilson from
Sichuan in 1908. This allrounder, slow-growing in habit, produces enor-
mous trusses of smallish red fruits accompanied by large leaves of a fine
dark red colour. As though these traits did not suffice, watch out for the
fat, sticky, horse-chestnut-like buds in winter. Finally I would like to sing
the praises of S. monbeigii. This white-fruiting species was introduced in
1991 after being collected on a trip to Yunnan sponsored by the Royal
Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. The collection numbers from this trip
carry the prefix "C.L.D." Upon seeing young seed-raised saplings of this
collection, I was particularly drawn to the stunning scarlet autumn foli-
age colour. Certainly it is one small tree to look out for.
48 CHAPTER THREE

With rhododendrons and rowans in place, the woodland garden is de-

veloping a backbone, leaving a little space for some smaller shrubs and
perhaps a few more specimen conifers. The available area obviously will
dictate when to curtail this planting of tall and midsized woody subjects
so as to leave room for planting the beds of herbaceous material. I love to
create "vistas," or beds specifically designed to give an opportunity to
view plants. Of course a sloping garden creates this facility more readily,
allowing us to look down on specimens such as Magnolia campbellii or
deciduous conifers coming into their own in the autumn such as the
dawn redwood (Metaseqwiaglyptostroboides], a fast-growing yet graceful
tree with lovely golden brown autumn colour. If a treat is allowed then
find space for the much-sought-after golden larch (Pseudolarix amabilis},
introduced from China by Robert Fortune in 1852. Its foliage turns
bright yellow in the autumn. If these conifers make an impression in the
vista then magnolias can do the same. I recommend Magnolia campbellii,
the Himalayan pink tulip tree. It loves warmer climates but is well worth
planting, provided future protection is assured.
I rate highly the species Magnolia gkbosa from the eastern Himalaya.
It is easily raised from seed and soon attains the size of a large shrub to
small tree. What I love about this plant is its ability to please at a level
where we can all reach to enjoy its sumptuous, nodding, creamy white,
rather globular flowers in June, but it is the fragrance reminiscent of cit-
rus and pineapples that stops people in their tracks.
I would certainly plant a few maples (Acer spp.) and at least one of the
superb snake-bark species such as Acer dawdii or A. hersii, both having the
added joy of producing rich autumn colour. One final specimen is a small
deciduous shrub from China, Lindera obtusiloba, which is so rewarding in
the late autumn when many other plants have dropped their leaves and it
still offers a show of butter-yellow. The rather large ovate leaves, three
lobed at the tip, are so attractive as they change colour that it is no sur-
prise it received an Award of Merit in 1952 from the Royal Horticultural
Society. Now let us pause and take stock.

PREPARATION FOR UNDERPLANTING

Next, it is time to prepare beds for planting herbaceous material. As I
have said, most Himalayan and Sino-Himalayan subjects prefer an acid
 TEMPERATE ZONE 49

soil. A neutral-to-acid soil is ideal. Purchasing a soil pH test kit is easy

and will give a quick answer as to whether the soil is suitable, thus en-
abling the project to continue. If the pH is too high, do not proceed. No
expense should be spared to improve the soil humus. Barrow loads of
acid leaf mould, along with highest quality sphagnum peat will repay the
efforts greatly in years to come. The soil should be open and friable,
lumpy, yet loose, retaining moisture but not wet. During planting, I al-
ways have a few buckets handy with a further provision of sphagnum
peat mixed with leaf mould and a supply of coarse sand.
What about supplementary fertilisers—are they necessary and which
should we use? Sometimes they should be utilised, notably with woody
subjects requiring a help along to establishment. I recommend a balanced
granular fertiliser containing the three primary requirements for growth:
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), together with mag-
nesium and minor trace elements. Nitrogen encourages plant growth,
notably in the foliage and stems, and promotes a good colour in the
leaves. Phosphorus, or phosphate, especially is required for good root
growth, particularly at the seedling stage. It also promotes seed and fruit
development in later stages of growth. Potassium, or potash, is important
for building up plant starches, sugars and fibrous tissues. It promotes
sturdy growth and improves quality of fruit. None of these primary re-
quirements should be high in percentage but rather a balanced low per-
centage. Each country has its own fertiliser manufacturers, usually offer-
ing an organic or inorganic choice. I find myself trying to utilise organic
fertiliser when food crops are involved and inorganic when planting or-
namentals, but in many cases relative to the woodland, little or no added
fertiliser is necessary. So, rather than continually mentioning the addi-
tion of fertiliser through the rest of the book, I will presume that the gar-
dener has it available in a bucket and when it is needed will apply a light
dusting of it in the preparatory hole and thoroughly mix it into the soil
prior to planting. Also I will presume that all plants are watered in after
planting on all occasions.
Consider how to irrigate the garden, if it is indeed feasible and legal to
do so. A by-product of rubber tyres called "leaky pipe" is now available on
the market, providing an ideal means of watering at low cost with mini-
mal disturbance to the garden and user. Now is the time to lay out this
5O CHAPTER THREE

porous piping around each bed a few inches below the surface, remem-
bering to situate it at the top side of a slope to encourage seepage. As the
garden is establishing, the plants best appreciate when the water is ap-
plied in the evening or early morning. I strongly discourage the use of
overhead sprinklers or misting systems as they can give plants a false sense
of security, fooling them into thinking they are obtaining water when
they are only receiving surface moisture. A hot, dry spell can spell death
for plants used to overhead watering, even for mature specimens, as no
moisture has reached the root where the plants need it. In my experience
overhead irrigation also poses a danger through splash that can spread
disease. For these reasons I recommend either watering by hand, for
small plots, or using a porous-pipe method of irrigation.
Once the soil is ready, plan what to plant and where to locate the plants
in the beds. Consider all-year-round colour and plants that will tolerate
positions closer to the trees where the root interference will be subsantial
and drying out inevitable. The position of the paths should be incorpo-
rated now, too. Perhaps a path can lead to some surprises, such as trees
and shrubs with overhanging fragrance. Try and avoid positioning a fa-
vourite specimen with fragrant or sumptuous flowers in the middle of a
bed away from a path, thus risking all and sundry stamping across plants
to admire it. Edging the paths with cut birch timbers is both sensible and
attractive, and a path topped with coniferous leaf mould and bracken is
pleasing to walk on.
Personal taste is always the prime criterion when planning any aspect
in the garden, just as is true inside the home. Will the garden take on a
natural look or a rather formal, even manicured approach? Along with
the concept of personal choice comes the will of nature. But the natural
woodland garden is not an excuse to plant out the subjects and leave the
rest to nature. If that were the case, in five years' time the whole site may
well be an entangled mass of bramble, lesser celandine or a whole host
of endemic woodland perennial weeds that have spoiled the garden.
Rather, the natural approach is to control most aspects of the feature by
weeding, pruning, thinning, dividing, and mulching without disturbing
the relationships that have formed between the various types of species
planted. Planting a woodland garden forms a whole new ecology, with
 TEMPERATE ZONE 5!

food chains, for example, between birds and insects, which depend on
our careful management, including responsible use of certain insecticides
and herbicides.

BULBS
I must emphasise that while the subject of this book puts the spotlight on
the Himalaya I would not prescribe tunnel vision to the degree that ex-
cludes plants from other regions. It may well be appropriate to incorpo-
rate stands of winter- and spring-flowering bulbous subjects such as snow-
drops (Galtinthus}^ Erythronium and Trillium, for example. To this end
my objective wherever possible would be to bring about all-year-round
colour and effect in the woodland. Plant association is very significant,
making advanced planning beneficial, without the need necessarily for
elaborate plans and a landscape architect. Plant association should not
just enhance the overall aesthetic effect but also bring about a natural
blending of species in the garden. For example the many cobra lilies (Ari-
sctema spp.) make spectacular plantings; planting them adjacent to a
sprawling evergreen such as a species of Gaultheria or Vaccinium would
provide protection for both the underground bulbs and the emerging
shoots. If finances allow, why not be a little extravagant and purchase a
range of exciting nursery-grown bulbous species and a few orchids? A
special site needs to be found for the orchids and choice bulbous species
to afford maximum protection and a reasonable depth of soil to help con-
trol the moisture content, for extremes of wet and dry are potentially dis-
astrous.
Along with a severely dented bank balance, our bulb tray holds some
plants of the lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium tibeticum) along with an-
other orchid species, Calanthe tricurinata, some lily species including Lil-
ium mackliniae and L. nepalense and some large bulbs, resembling scaly
tennis balls, of the sensational giant lily (Cardiocrinumgiganteum). It is
early spring and the subjects are still dormant, an ideal time to plant
them. The soil is beginning to warm up and the risk of severe frost is di-
minishing but should a sudden drop in temperature threaten, be pre-
pared to cover the site with layers of pegged-down fleece for extra pro-
tection. If plants have been purchased by mail order, I recommend
52 CHAPTER THREE

hardening them off by placing them in a tray of slightly moist peat in a

cool, frost-free shed for several days prior to planting, thus lessening the
shock.
Each plant or group of plants should be clearly labelled in the bed both
to identify the subject and to make clear its juxtaposition in the scheme.
My wife considers the beds I plant to bear close resemblance to a ceme-
tery with rows of headstones above smoothly manicured grounds. Of
course she is right, yet if only she would reserve judgement until the next
stage when I will either prepare a written plan of the area with the plants
carefully mapped for my record or transfer the labelling system onto a
less eye-catching one made of neutral-coloured fencing wire cut into
short 1-to 2-ft. (30- to 60-cm) lengths to which aluminium labels are at-
tached.
For the cypripediums and calanthes, work into the soil several hand-
fills of coarse sand and a good portion of well-rotted pine needles. No
added fertiliser should be incorporated at all. The cypripediums will have
one or more growth buds resting amongst a mat of fibrous root. Plant
these so that the buds are situated just beneath the surface of the soil.
Cypripedium tibeticum is often confused with other members of this
much-sought-after genus, providing a challenge for taxonomists. This
species has a broad range from eastern Himalaya to Tibet and western
China. In the wild the plants generally grow in clusters up to 9 in. (23
cm) tall with generally large, solitary, pouched flowers of deep purple
with attractive veining and flushing. A choice and indeed similar species
is C. himalaicum found growing from western Nepal through to south-
eastern Tibet. Both are fully hardy to 10.4°F (-12°C) as long as the newly
produced shoots are protected from late frost. Flowers can be expected
during the late spring to early summer. The Himalayan Calanthe tricari-
nata, is later flowering but prefers the same cool situation and a compa-
rable planting technique. In the summer, flowering stems rise some 12
in. (30 cm) carrying a lax spike of glowing greenish yellow flowers with
a reddish brown lip.
A similar bed will suit the lilies. The giant lily (Cardiocrinumgigan-
teum] flowers in early summer to midsummer with 6-ft. (2-m), stately
spikes carrying a number of large funnel-shaped flowers on terminal
 TEMPERATE ZONE 53

stems, each flower white with a red-marked throat and a powerful fra-
grance sure to filter through the whole woodland on a summer evening.
It is found growing in dense forest throughout the Himalaya, but the
form found in Yunnan is also well worth looking out for, with its distinct
green flushing to the flowers. These bulbs can be purchased in sizes from
ping-pong ball to tennis ball depending on their age; prices differ ac-
cordingly. They take more than five years to flower from seed.
I would buy three to five bulbs and plant them in a group. Many au-
thorities recommend shallow planting very near the surface. I would not
disagree with this, although I have experienced no ill effects when plant-
ing as deep as 6 in. (15 cm). Eventually the bulbs seem to work their way

Cypripedium himalaicum, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

54 CHAPTER THREE

towards the surface, presumably projected by the force of their very sub-
stantial root system. As with all lilies, I recommend preparing holes with
plenty of added gritty sand worked together with the endemic soil to pre-
vent rotting during wet spells.
After the stately spikes of Cardiocmnumgiganteum have ceased flow-
ering they may be left for the seed to ripen, which may take well into the
autumn. Eventually, in December in climates like mine, cut the spikes
down near the ground and bring them under cover for further ripening
of the seeds. As the seed capsules begin to brown and dry out they can
be cut off the spikes and hung up in paper bags to dry, prior to cleaning
and subsequent sowing. Chapter 6 offers more detail on this process.
In winter whilst the stumps of old giant lily stems remain we can re-
turn and lift the decaying bulb along with two or three young bulbs
which have formed alongside it. The soil should be dug over and rejuve-
nated with fresh leaf-mould, and the young lily bulbils should be re-
planted a few inches deep, ready for the whole process to repeat, with
projected flowering two or three years hence. Due to inevitable "soil
tiredness" I would not recommend continual planting of similar species
in the same soil over many generations. Move them about and we are
thus obeying one of the most fundamental rules of horticulture and can
save ourselves much unnecessary worry from unwanted pests and dis-
eases. Perish the thought of monoculture in a woodland garden, home
to a single genetic collection of one genus. To allow this would be invit-
ing an inevitable attack of a deadly virus and the introduction, in the case
of a lily monoculture, of the ravages of lily beetle. Any emphasis placed on
one type of plant is danger lurking around the corner. To promote variety
in our woodland planting I suggest two Himalayan Lilium species, L.
nepcdense and L. mackliniae., meriting pride of place close to the edge of a
path, nestling amongst a few of the dwarfer Rhododendron species such
as R. chamae-thomsonii., R. tsariense or the ever popular R. sanguineum,
all suitable in dappled shade.
Lilium nepcdense is an extraordinary species endemic to the Nepalese
Himalaya, often growing in grassy banks in the wooded zone. It is exotic
as its arching 2- to 3-ft. (60- to 90-cm) stems sway with the weight of
large greenish trumpets opening out with reddish purple centres. One
 TEMPERATE ZONE 55

Cardiocrinumgiganteum., Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

56 CHAPTER THREE

merit of this plant horticulturally is its stoloniferous, spreading habit. It

even has the ability to send a stolon travelling under a path to reappear a
distance from its mother plant, without ever becoming a nuisance. Prop-
agation is therefore simple, involving the lifting and transplanting of
bulbs during the dormant season. I have never been too keen on staking
or supporting plants in an informal setting, yet some of the more robust
lilies carry such weighty blossoms that some support may be judicious.
My preference is to procure short lengths of leafless branches and place
them carefully amongst the emerging lilies to lend a little tasteful support.
The second species is rather special and, along with Lilium nepalense,
often is available from specialist nurseries; it is L. mackliniae, flowering
in June. This was one of Frank Kingdon Ward's finest introductions from
Manipur, Burma (now Myanmar). He named it after his wife, Jean Mack-
lin, who is justly proud of such a fine garden plant. Every year on 5 June
Jean gets out her diary and reads the twelve-page entry for that day in
1946. The day was one of celebration, not only because they were on
their honeymoon but because on this day she and Frank first saw the pink
L. mackliniae on the upper slopes of the mountain Sirhoi Kashong in
what was then India's Manipur state: "There were thousands in flower. It
was the happiest day of my life and we were in ecstasy, absolute ecstasy"
(personal communication).
I would certainly plant the bulbs of Lilium mackliniae in front of a low-
growing evergreen rhododendron to allow the stately 18-in. (46-cm)
stems carrying several large soft-pink, pendent, bell-like flowers to pro-
vide a satisfying background. Once planted, this lily, as with most of the
true species, should be left alone. The bulbs of the non-stoloniferous sub-
jects do not enjoy handling but can be easily raised from seed, which is ex-
actly what to offer to friends when they ask for some of this exquisite spe-
cies. The seed capsules will turn yellow as they ripen in the late summer
and then a brownish colour prior to opening and dispersing the seed. As
with all lilies—and the cardiocrinums though they take longer to ripen—
just as the capsules begin to crack open, carefully cut the flower stalks
down to the ground and place the capsules into a paper bag marked
clearly with the name of the plant. The bags are best hung on a line with
clothes pegs in a light, open, airy shed to ripen fully. In late autumn the
 TEMPERATE ZONE 57

capsules can be safely opened and the seed cleaned prior to winter sow-
ing, which I explain further in Chapter 6. The seedlings will germinate
through the following year, whereupon I recommend repotting the
whole mass of seedlings in a loam-based compost and leaving for a full
year. The bulbils can be pricked out then and held over in deep boxes of
a leafy soil to wait for planting out in the garden in another two years.
Yes, this is a patient five-to-six-year project, surely part of the fun of gar-

Lilium nepalense, Munich Botanic Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
58 CHAPTER THREE

Lilium mackliniae, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

 TEMPERATE ZONE 59

dening, but the glorious flowers of L. mackliniae make all this process so
rewarding.

HERBACEOUS PLANTS
It may bring some light relief to highlight a group of straightforward
plants that merit a place in any woodland garden. Hardy spurges
(Euphorbia) are guaranteed to brighten up any dull corner with a bold
splash of colour, which will be useful, particularly as we develop vistas
for late-spring to early-summer colour. Euphorbia is a genus of plants na-
tive to various parts of the world including the Himalaya. I recommend
the species E.grjfithii because it is easy to obtain and grows well in chal-
lenging sites where protection is not yet established.
When discussing the hardy spurges, we should know the definitions of
some botanical terminology. As gardeners we love flowers and foliage
and lavish praise on their particular features, but is it not true that as we
look down at a bold stand of Euphorbia griffithii we may hesitate for a
moment to ponder over what to call the various parts we want to de-
scribe? The typical hardy spurge has three kinds of leaf. The stem leaves I
will loosely describe as traditional leaves; the floral leaves look much like
flower petals with lovely shades of yellow, orange or lime-green; and lo-
cated between these two are the whorl leaves which occur at the base of
the umbel of true flowers which are miniscule and need not concern us as
gardeners. The brightly coloured floral leaves attract insects and play a sig-
nificant role in the reproductive process for this important genus. As we
admire these showy plants we probably will be singing the praises of these
three types of foliage rather than the flowers. Two other important facts
about hardy spurges are that the seed is always borne in threes and their
white juice is poisonous and may give uncomfortable side effects, as I
once experienced when taking cuttings of E. myrsinites. Try to avoid get-
ting the juice on the skin or in the eyes, but if you do, wash it off
promptly. Not surprisingly some species, notably E. wulfenii, have been
recommended to be planted as a deterrent to that adorable yet mischie-
vous pest, the mole.
In the woodland garden I suggest planting bold patches of Euphorbia
griffithii and E. wallichii. Euphorbiagriffithii (L.S.H. 18685) is of pro-
6O CHAPTER THREE

found importance horticulturally, owing its introduction to Ludlow,

Sherriff and Hicks from Bhutan in 1949. Found growing in damp, grassy
scrub in the eastern Himalaya, it has fine strong stems carrying stunning
red-coloured floral leaves and spreads generously by underground sto-
lons. Stolons are slender stems usually creeping on the soil surface. The
species is a classic amongst herbaceous plants and has some splendid cul-
tivars worth seeking out, including E. griffithii Tireglow', 'Dixter' and
Tern Cottage'. These selections have floral leaves of burnt orange and au-
tumn foliage of yellow to flame-red.
My favourite is the cultivar Euphorbiagriffithii 'Robert Poland', com-
memorating one of the great characters of the late twentieth century, now
long retired from his nursery trade. He was instrumental in providing
me with some of my fondest memories and most-valued training as a stu-
dent. I particularly remember planting rows of perfectly grown herba-
ceous liners, or young plants, in "whalehide pots," traditional paper-like
pots that rot in the soil, ready for marketing to the top parks departments
around London. Working alongside seasoned horticulturists such as
Poland was an unforgettable experience, trying to soak up the common-
sense approach that only comes from decades of genuine hands-on ex-
perience with a wide range of garden plants. This euphorbia originated in
his nursery in Ardingly, West Sussex, and enjoys floral leaves of a brighter
and richer red than those of Tireglow' on a more robust plant.
The Himalayan Euphorbia wallichii from Nepal, my second recom-
mended species for the woodland garden, is somewhat dwarfer in stature,
growing up to 2 ft. (60 cm) in height. Its fine clumps show off floral
leaves of a lovely, glowing golden yellow over a long period in late spring.
They prove valuable as contrast to blue-flowering plants nearby.
A number of popular herbaceous plants lend themselves to woodland
conditions, especially Thalictrum, Bergenia, Podophyllum, and Rodgersia.
One of the most attractive of the meadow rues is T. chelidonii. It is fre-
quently encountered in deciduous woodland from Kashmir eastward to
southern Tibet at altitudes of 8860 to 11,800 ft. (2700-3600 m). This
tall perennial often exceeds 6 ft. (2 m) high in nature, with attractive lilac-
pink flowers in clusters above the typically toothed foliage on branched
stems. Many of the Himalayan bergenias grow in open, sunny aspects in
 TEMPERATE ZONE 6l

nature and would therefore be out of place in this section, but one I re-
member growing very happily in woodland conditions in the Munich
Botanic Garden was Bergenia ligulata var. ciliata, simply B. ciliata as some
botanists prefer. A drift of this variety around the base of a tree should
provide a fine show in the spring. Short stems carry dense clusters of
flowers varying from white through to pink. The foliage turns bright red
in the autumn. Be sure to add humus to the soil before planting. The
spring-flowering Podophyllum hexandrum (synonym P. emoAi\ belong-
ing to the Berberidaceae, the berberis family, is a freely available plant de-

Bergenia ciliata, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

62 CHAPTER THREE

serving wider praise. As the spring season develops, the plant unfurls
mottled foliage in pairs, each pair later subtending a large pink flower.
This is a pleasing combination, but the latter part of the season brings
the bonus of hanging red fruit containing several seeds to facilitate prop-
agation.
Rodgersia offers many species of popular bog plants that respond well
in a woodland, too. A 1992 introduction of R. nepalensis caught my
attention in the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. It would lend valu-
able architectural form to a mixed planting including Meconopsis and
Primula species. The greenish white flowers are attractively held in a one-
sided, curved cluster on noble 2-to 3-ft. (60- to 90-cm) stems.
If we are not careful it is possible to have a rather unbalanced flower-
ing emphasis in the springtime. Summer colour is naturally less prolific
due to the seasonal effects on flowering in nature, yet a number of Gera-

Podophyllum hexandrum, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 63

nium species will lend themselves to giving late colour in the woodland.
Deserving the spotlight is G. wallichianum., fairly widespread through-
out the Himalaya. Although this species needs space, as it spreads in a
scrambling fashion with branched stems, it dies back completely in the
winter. This valuable species is easily propagated from seed, resulting in
some lovely colour forms. My favourite is G. wallichianum 'Buxton's Va-
riety5 with white-centred, clean blue flowers held in pairs over beautifully
lobed foliage which assumes a reddish autumn colour. Pink to reddish-
purple flowers occur in the wild and often are available in the trade—all
adding to the beauty of this late-flowering species.

Daphne bholua, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

64 CHAPTER THREE

For the same end of the season Crawfurdia speciosa is worth seeking
out as a climbing member of the gentian family, Gentianaceae, found in
eastern Nepal scrambling over Viburnum. The effect of the crawfurdia is
a cascading series of stems with brilliant blue, gentian-like flowers fol-
lowed by reddish-purple, fruiting capsules. If this exciting plant is cho-
sen, a suitable compatriot would be the winter-flowering Daphne bholua,
as both require a sheltered position away from the most severe ravages of
frost. The daphne is now available in many forms, some more deciduous
than others. Daphne bholua 'Jacqueline PostilT is a firm favourite with an
abundance of purplish pink flowers emitting a powerful fragrance.

PRIMULA frMECONOPSIS
The woodland canopy should not be so dense as to prevent some effective
light transmission, and where more than the average light filters through,
beds may be prepared for two highlights of this book, primulas and blue
poppies (Meconopsis spp.). Neither the larger Primula norMeconopsis spe-
cies grow in woodland conditions in nature, but my experience has found
that many species grow well in dappled shade and most require shelter
from the strongest winds and excessive summer heat that seem to accom-
pany our changing climate, shelter that the woodland garden can give.
The combination afforded by the taller primulas and blue poppies is a
sight to behold in June and July. (The primulas that enjoy boggy condi-
tions are discussed in the section on bog gardens in Chapter 4.)
These beds need space and a depth of soil away from the close prox-
imity of tree roots. The lime-free soil needs to be well prepared with
added humus. Well-rotted manure is beneficial for the primulas but it is
not a favourite ofMeconopsis., so incorporate it sparingly throughout the
bed. Bold drifts of these plants is the finest way of showing them off, and
should a naturally occurring stream be running through the wood, pos-
sibilities abound for both these and the bog-liking primulas.
Meconopsis species fall conveniently into two groups, the perennial spe-
cies and the monocarpic species, those flowering once and then dying.
The latter group is valuable despite their short-lived nature because they
produce copious amounts of seed to ensure a means of propagation.
Often the stout rosettes of the monocarpic species' foliage produced over
 TEMPERATE ZONE 65

a period of some four to five years prior to flowering provide the most
decorative appeal. The most freely available species isM. napaulensis, es-
tablished in gardens in the 1960s following the successful introduction
from Nepal by Stainton, Sykes and Williams. Many meconopses grown
today are of hybrid origin, as M. napaulensis has been crossed success-
fully with M. relict andAf. paniculata. Meconopsis re0ia is now no longer
in cultivation and awaits reintroduction. The foliage of all these species is
variable and its size depends greatly on the fertility of the soil in which it
is growing. The leaf colour varies from a lovely silver to shades of yellow,
but all leaf shapes are much dissected. At flowering the stem may assume
a height from 3 to 6 ft. (0.9-2 m), with a stately spike or cyme of yellow,
pink or ruby-red flowers, often up to ten, in the shape of cups or goblets,

Open valley with Betula utilis var. jacquemontii, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT
66 CHAPTER THREE

a magnificent sight indeed. The variety M. napaulensis var. wallichii pro-

duces blue or more rarely white flowers on a splendid spike and generally
in just two or three years from seed.
Meconopsispaniculate is similar toM. napaulensis and is generally sep-
arable only to the trained botanical eye. The most noticeable difference is
that the stigma of M. paniculate is reliably soft purple in colour and the
stigma of .M. napaulensis is green. A wonderful form of this species was
collected in the Ghunza region in eastern Nepal by Mike Hirst. It con-
sistently produces foliage of a sensational ginger-orange colour along
with yellow flowers. In time no doubt, if the two species are planted in

Meconopsis napaulensis, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 67

the same bed,M. paniculata will hybridise withM. napaulensis and this
distinctive leaf colour will be lost. Planting it well away from potential
mates could ensure its purity.
Meconopsis superba must reign supreme amongst the monocarpic group
of Himalayan poppies. Its ample silver-haired rosettes produce flowering
spikes up to 5 ft. (1.5 m) in height carrying flowers that appear from the
leaf axils on the stem. Each flower is of the purest white, four-petalled,
sometimes more than 3 in. (8 cm) across, with the noted feature of a strik-
ing, deep purple-black stigma. Propagation is, as with all these monocarpic
species, by means of seed best sown at the end of the year in an acid-loam
compost. Sow thinly, otherwise rotting will cause heavy losses. This lovely
species generally takes at least three to four years to flower from seed.
A distinct and fine plant I heartily recommend primarily for its foliage

Meconopsis napaulemis, rosette, Langtang, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
68 CHAPTER THREE

is the Nepalese species Meconopsis dkwojii, introduced by Stainton, Sykes

and Williams. It is ideal in the woodland setting where its rosettes of
highly dissected leaves are a showy purple-bronze shade. The lemon-yel-
low flowers are held in graceful panicles.
As indispensable as the monocarpic meconopses are, the perennial
blue poppies take centre stage in June and July when their glorious
flowers draw every eye. Though I am recommending these plants for the
woodland, they will thrive equally well in an open, sunny aspect, pro-
vided sufficient shelter can prevent the flowering stems from wind dam-
age. In fact I must emphasise that a densely shaded woodland garden may
be unsuitable for the perennial species of Meconopsis. A sunny glade is the
premium position in the woodland to create a large bed with soil that is
several feet deep and naturally fertile.
I will endeavour to focus on some of the finest, both in flower and
constitution, from the wide choice of both species and hybrids available.
The species most easily raised from seed and most widely available is Me-
conopsis betonicifolia., Kingdon Ward's introduction from Tumbatse in
south-eastern Tibet in 1924. He said of his first sighting of the plant,
'Among a paradise of primulas the flowers flutter out from amongst the
sea-green leaves like blue and golden butterflies" (Fletcher 1975). What
a horticultural achievement his introduction proved to be. Variable in
both flower colour and stature, it is a very special herbaceous plant. It is
strongly perennial yet benefits from regular division of the clumps every
three years in March or early April just as the new foliage begins to ap-
pear, thus making it easier to discern where to part the clumps. As with all
the perennial species and hybrids, never allow it to flower in the first sea-
son. Yes, it is hard to remove that first flower bud, but doing so will as-
sure annual production of blossom forever. At flowering M. betonicifolia
will attain 2- to 3-ft. (60- to 90-cm) stems carrying many flowers varying
from sky-blue through to palest blue. It also produces a fine white form,
M. betonicifolia Alba'. Where an alkaline or limy soil is prevalent, flower
colour may be purple, causing disappointment for some.
The highly variable Meconopsisgrandis, closely related to .M. betonicifo-
lia, is to be found in Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and south-eastern Tibet.
Such a wide distribution indicates not surprisingly considerable varia-
 TEMPERATE ZONE 69

tion in form. Personal taste may dictate whether to choose a more lance-
olate-leafed form from Nepal or the lobed variety from Tibet. Without
doubt the clone previously known in horticulture asM.jjrandis 'George
Sherriff 600' is one of the easiest to grow and finest in flower. The con-
fusion surrounding this name and the various plants offered in the trade
has always been a puzzle to me. When Ludlow and Sherriff sent seed
home under this collection number various packets would have been sent
to gardens and nurseries alike. Plants would have been raised and, as in
the case of those grown in a nursery such as Jack Drake's of Aviemore,

Meconopsis betonicifolia, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

70 CHAPTER THREE

Scotland, they would have been subsequently offered to the public. Some
variation is inevitable together with obvious similarities. For this reason
we should expect considerable variation in form when purchasing or
viewing plants under this name. The selections namedM. grandis 'Brank-
lyn' and 'Jimmy Bayne' are both from this introduction and merit a place
in the woodland garden. Each of these form healthy clumps in three
years, after which they need division. In moist, rich soil stems can reach
3-4 ft. (90-120 cm) with plentiful, dark blue flowers hanging down with
their orange-yellow anthers in June and July.
The Meconopsis Group was formed in Scotland in 1998 to try to clar-
ify the identity and nomenclature of the perennial blue meconopsis cur-
rently being grown in gardens. At a meeting held on 10 June 2000, the
group unanimously decided to adopt a new name for Meconopsisgmndis
'George Sherriff600'. Since clearly several different plants were in com-
merce under this name, they agreed to adopt the nameM. George Sherriff
Group in accord with the Intertantional Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
The natural hybrid between the two species Meconopsis betonicifolia and

Meconopsis betonicifolia 'Alba', Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 TEMPERATE ZONE 71

M.grandis \sM. Ysheldonii, easily the finest for the garden of all blue pop-
pies and a prime choice for the woodland garden. Meconopsis xsheldonii
was raised by W. G. Sheldon in 1934 at Oxted in Surrey, England. It fully
deserves its 1937 Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society.
This hybrid is widely offered in the trade, raising some confusion as to
the validity of the name.This The
pageMeconopsis Group
intentionally concluded that the
left blank
name M. ysheldonii should be given only to the clone that won the Award
of Merit. At this time, a new name has not been chosen for this group of
hybrid forms, but I am comfortable that the plant pictured in this book
is the Award of Merit plant with the correct and valid name. In the gar-
den, this hybrid is hard to surpass, as it produces 4-ft. (1-m) stems with
many nodding turquoise-blue flowers blooming over a long period in
the summer. This vigorous grower is best planted in the spring. Division,
as mentioned earlier, should be carried out in the spring every three years.
After some six years, or after two divisions, I recommend moving the
planting of Meconopsis to a new bed of "virgin soil" or at least to a bed
which has been utilised for a different type of plant. Soil sickness is a log-
ical result of monoculture and one which can only be overcome by good
husbandry.
A pollen-fertile strain of this hybrid, namcdMeconopsisxsheldonii 'Ling-
holm', has been developed and disseminated by Mike Swift, head gar-
dener at Torosay Castle, Isle of Mull, Scotland. Now widely available,
this is a fine and beautiful blue poppy with the added virtue of copious
seed production.
No bed of blue poppies would be satisfactory without some compan-
ion to enhance and share the beauty. I suggest interplanting stands of the
taller primulas which can be lifted and divided along with the poppies as
they break into growth in spring. I cannot overemphasise here that such
a bed will require an abundance of moisture during the growing season
through the leaky pipe or similar means of ground irrigation. Suitable
Primula species to join this bed would be those from the section Sikki-
mensis as classified by Wright Smith and Fletcher (1948), together with
some from the section Candelabra. The candelabra primulas are often
recommended for a bog garden, too. From the richly fragrant choices in
the section Sikkimensis come the finest forms of P. sikkimensis found grow-
72 CHAPTER THREE

ing throughout the Himalaya. It is a true classic from the region, like the
blue poppy, with rich umbels of up to twenty pendent, yellow flowers
on 3-ft. (90-cm) stems. Closely related is the burgundy-coloured species
P. waltonii encountered zmongstMeconopsisgrandis in Bhutan. A variable
species found growing abundantly in the Tsari region of south-eastern
Tibet is P. alpicola., also closely related to P. sikkimensis and reportedly
crossing freely with it in that region. In its true form, the species is quite
distinct with its leaves narrowly oval and rounded at the base. The flowers
again held in umbels are fragrant and found typically in shades of lemon-
yellow, white and purplish blue.
Fine drifts of the candelabra primulas are highly recommended for the
woodland with their variety of colours. The only true woodland species
is the Japanese endemic Primula japonica, but those from the Himalaya
will grow admirably in a man-made woodland setting. The golden yellow
flowers of P. helodoxa offer a glowing contrast to the blue poppies. This
species is so closely related to P. prolifem that any confusion of nomen-
clature should not concern us as gardeners. Rather let it be known that
these two species are evergreen members of the section Candelabra.
Primula helodoxa was first introduced from Yunnan by Forrest. It has
flowering stems often in excess of 3 ft. (90 cm) bearing up to seven
whorls of wonderful golden yellow flowers. A mixed planting of P. bul-
leyana or P. chungensis., both orange flowered, with the purple-red P. pul-
verulenta make for a fine show. Hybrids are produced freely, including
pleasant pastel shades. Once this marriage of Primula and Meconopsis has
become established it is hard to imagine a finer sight in the woodland
glade than this summer's day view.

PETIOLARID PRIMULAS
To conclude this discussion of the woodland garden I would like to de-
vote some time to the Primula species of the section Petiolares, a group
quite variable in their natural habitat. A very successful way of growing
these popular primulas was pioneered by horticulturist-plantsman Alex
Duguid, who ran Edrom Nurseries in south-eastern Scotland for many
years with The Misses Logan Home. He utilised a natural birch (Betula
pendula) woodland in which he had planted a number of the larger-grow-
 TEMPERATE ZONE 73

ing Rhododendron species introduced by Kingdon Ward and Ludlow and

Sherriff. Always taking great pains to try and re-enact the conditions a
plant enjoys in its native habitat, Duguid reproduced almost the exact
home conditions for the lovely Primula whitei (synonym P. bhutanica),
found growing in Bhutan. Here is Sherriffs description of the natural
habitat he and Ludlow saw in 1937: "We crossed the Lamse La [12,400
ft., 3780 m] where, in the thick Rhododendron and Abies forest, a rich red-
dish-pink form of .R. hod0sonii was very abundant along with the pale
lemon-yellow R. campylocarpum., the bright redR. smithii and the salmon-
pink form of R. cinnabarinum. This was the Phobsikha district andPn'w-
ula whitei was in such profusion as to colour large areas of the steep damp
slope of the Rhododendron forest with delft-blue or pale blue-violet. Every
time I see that primula I think it is the prettiest one I have ever seen and
always I feel elated however many times I see it" (Fletcher 1975).
Although I have never seen Primula whitei in the wild, I can echo Sher-
rifPs conclusion from my own horticultural experience of the species. The
secret of success with this plant and all the petiolarid primulas found in
the temperate zone is to find a cool, slightly sloping site in dappled shade,
with an acid soil at least 1 ft. (30 cm) deep. Plant them in the spring in
groups of five to seven to provide a fine show of spring colour. The first
to flower, as early as February, is P. whitei. Overwintering, resting buds
resemble mealy hen's eggs and gradually unfurl with a rosette of farinose,
or mealy-textured, leaves and a beautiful posy of china-blue flowers. To
protect both the flowers and the farina it may be beneficial to cover the
plants with a well-secured pane of glass. After flowering, during a damp
spell in May, divide congested clumps and keep them moist during their
period of transition and re-establishment.
Some clones of Primula whitei are sterile, but others are fertile. When
seed is set the capsules will swell to the point at which the seeds become
clearly visible through a thin layer of tissue, in late spring to early sum-
mer, prior to the fruit opening and dispersing the contents. At this mo-
ment before the capsules open, collect the capsules, open them and care-
fully lay the seeds onto a piece of card. Sow the seeds immediately in a
soil-based seed compost, covering them with a thin layer of sharp sand.
Germination sometimes takes place in the autumn but more frequently
74 CHAPTER THREE

the following spring. This method of seed harvesting and immediate

sowing is most prominently necessary amongst the petiolarid primulas.
Other species I would suggest for this woodland bed, to accompany
Primula whitei., would be the easily grown and most widely available
pink-flowered P.gmcilipes found widespread in the Himalaya. Primula
edgeworthii (synonym P. nana) from the western Himalaya is variable in
colour from lavender-blue to pink and pure white. A splendid hybrid be-
tween P. whitei and P. edgeworthii, raised by the sharp-eyed Margaret and
Henry Taylor of Invergowrie, Dundee, is P. Tantallon' with heavily fari-
nose foliage and glowing, dark blue flowers in February and March. The
sterile hybrids such as this one may need more regular division. A per-
sonal favourite of mine is the late-flowering effarinose introduction of
Ludlow and Sherriff found close to the Bhutan-Sikkim border, P.petio-

Primulagracilipes flowering in October, Lamjung, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
 TEMPERATE ZONE 75

Ions (L.S. 19856). I named a selection P. petiolaris 'Redpoll' due to the

nomenclatural confusion surrounding this species and the number of
wrongly named plants masquerading under the name P. petiolaris. 'Red-
poll' forms a tight, green rosette with a disc of purple buds nestling
through the winter until April when they open out to the most vivid
plum-red flowers. It is a remarkably robust plant for a 1949 collection,
remaining highly resilient against attack from virus. It is not known to
produce seed yet benefits from being divided up and replanted.
Finally for the petiolarids, I suggest seeking out good forms of the
variable Primula boothii, seemingly widespread in the Himalaya although
often collected at lower elevations. The late George Smith once collected
a fine form of this species in Nepal with typically purplish, effarinose foli-
age and a beautifully fringed flower of a pinkish purple shade. A later in-

Primula edgeworthii, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

76 CHAPTER THREE

troduction was made by Tony Schilling, P. boothii (S.2634), from the An-
napurna district of central Nepal, and his white form, P. boothii var. alba,
has maintained good constitution. This species is easily grown and even
more easily propagated, making it meritorious in horticultural terms.
During a cooler, damp spell in August the clumps of Primula boothii
can be lifted and divided to good effect, but during the process the leaves
practically fall away from the rosette. With a little care, glean leaf cuttings
by severing the best quality mature leaves that have a little axillary bud
already formed at the base of the leaf blade. Prepare a seed tray with an
open compost of equal parts sphagnum peat and leaf mould or perlite.
The leaf cuttings, each with an axillary bud, can now be placed into the
compost at an angle. Make sure the leaf blade is well anchored down, but
overly firming the soil is not advisable. Water in well and cover the tray
with a thin film of polythene. Within a few months little plantlets will
form from each of the leaf axillary buds. Keep them protected through
winter and they will be ready for potting up in the spring or planting back
into a suitable bed. Other petiolarid primulas can be propagated this way
successfully, including P. petiola-ris, P. gracilipes andP irregularis.
These are my personal choices for planting in the woodland garden.
They represent just a few species of those found in the vast Himalayan
range. Before moving into the peat garden, which is in many ways a re-
finement of the woodland landscape, I want to focus on the increasingly
popular genus mentioned in the first paragraph of this chapter.

PLEIONE
It always fascinates me how it is that first impressions can either make or
break an experience, depending on how the image was presented. Serv-
ing my apprenticeship at both W. E. Th. Ingwersen's in Sussex and in the
Botanic Garden in Munich, I encountered beautifully grown pleiones,
and they made a great and favourable impression on me. Since those early
days, I have never given them the attention I desired, due to my special-
ising in hardy alpine plants. Pleiones should be regarded as subjects for
pot culture, not for the open garden.
In Germany, pleiones have been called windowsill orchids, appropri-
ately so, for indeed they may be given a cool but frost-free environment
 TEMPERATE ZONE 77

during their winter dormancy. This member of the orchid family, Orchi-
daceae, has been accorded the much needed scrutiny of botanists and tax-
onomists with the results being published in the form of an up-to-date
monograph by Cribb and Butterfield (1999). A number of species have
recently been rediscovered in the wild and introduced into cultivation,
bringing their total number to about fifteen. They are not truly terres-
trial or epiphytic species but tend to grow mainly on the deep litter in
forest glades and on moss-covered rocks, old tree stumps and commonly

Habitat for pleiones, Lamjung, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

78 CHAPTER THREE

on the lower branches of trees. They are generally found at cooler alti-
tudes ranging from 3300 ft. (1000 m), in the case ofPleioneformosana in
Taiwan, to 13,100 ft. (4000 m). Although technically considered to be
semi-epiphytic pseudobulbs, they may be regarded as easily grown. Their
main requirements are a cool rest or dormancy in winter, a humus-rich
compost which will hold air as well as moisture and a regime of feeding
during the summer growing season in order to build up the next-season's
pseudobulbs. As well as feeding, maintaining humidity around the plants
is very beneficial, as is protecting them from direct sunlight at the hottest
part of the day. If species such as the deep yellow P.forrestii are the most
exciting and sought after, being from Yunnan, the ones found in the
"true" Himalaya are still highly desirable.
The species that may be encountered fairly readily in the Himalaya,
most notably in central Nepal, are Pleionefraecox., P. humilis and P. hooker-
iana. In 1992, the species P. coronaria was rediscovered by a team of Ox-
ford University botanists in the Ganesh Himal, first having been discov-
ered by Adam Stainton in 1962. I will concentrate on the first three
species and add a few notes on this last one.
Pleiompraecox is an extremely variable species widely distributed from
the Uttar Pradesh to south-eastern China growing on the moss-covered
trunks of trees such as Rhododendron arboreum or steep mossy banks. It is
generally found at altitudes between 5900 and 8200 ft. (1800-2500 m).
The pseudobulbs are barrel-shaped with a short conical beak, showing a
characteristic green and maroon mottling. The flowers are borne on a
short stalk, rose-pink in colour, white within with yellow markings on
the teeth. In nature it generally flowers in October and November but
in cultivation more usually in September and October. Despite flowering
in the autumn, this species still requires a winter rest as with the spring-
flowering types.
The long-term survival of these Nepalese species of Pleione is under
threat. Although great efforts are being made both in the Himalaya and
in China to control deforestation, there are areas such as in central Nepal
where late-1990s observations would suggest the contrary. The main rea-
son for felling these old endemic trees, such as the great firs (Abies specta,-
bilis] and hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), is to open up grazing pastures. The
 TEMPERATE ZONE 79

trees are ring-barked, or girdled, and left to die. This is sad, and it is
hoped that help will be given to the local people to encourage less de-
structive practices in the pursuit of land for grazing.
For lovers of these orchids a visit to central Nepal would be well re-
warded in May or June when the thrill of scrambling up through forests
of Abies and Rhododendron arboreum culminates in masses of Pleione hook-
eriana. Some have observed "an individual fir tree supporting colonies
[of pleiones] in 'successive pillows' of moss well over 65 feet [20 m] up
into the crown of the tree" (Kretz 1987). The habit of this species is
unique in that it has the ability to reproduce by means of stolons. The

Pleionepraecox, flowering in October, Lamjung, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

8o CHAPTER THREE

flower colour varies widely from pure white to shell-pink with the lip-
markings often lightly tinged with yellow. It will rank as one of the most
beautiful of all pleiones but is a little more challenging to grow, no doubt
due to the cooler conditions in which it is growing and the often densely
shaded sites.
Observations in the field, most notably amidst the ancient Dharchy
forest, lying at 9800 ft. (2990 m) in central Nepal, suggest that another
species, Pleione humilis., often grows with P. hookeriana. It is rather un-
likely that they will hybridise as their flowering periods do not overlap.
Pleione humilis generally commences flowering in late January whereas P.

Pleione hookeriana in cultivation DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 81

hookeriana flowers in May or June. Pleione humilis is an outstanding spe-

cies easily recognised in flower with its lips heavily marked and spotted
with dark red, contrasting with the white to rose-pink petals. Rather typ-
ically it is found growing in thick moss on the branches and trunks of
rhododendrons. The forest in central Nepal consists of gnarled, old spec-
imens of Rhododendron arboreum up to 50 ft. (15 m) in height with an
understorey containing Daphne bholua, Sarcococca and Pieris.
The pseudobulbs of Pleione humilis vary greatly in shape and colour,
but they are generally flask-shaped with a long neck and olive-green in
colour. In cultivation this species is often the first to flower in February,
after which it has a short rest and then produces new roots at the end of
March. By contrast P. hookeriana is latest of the spring-flowering species,
blooming in April or May. Curiously, P. humilis, while slow to increase,
often produces up to fifty tiny bulbils from the top of the old pseudo-
bulbs.

Rhododendron arboreum, Langtang, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
82 CHAPTER THREE

The final Himalayan species and the last one recorded is Pleione coro-
naria, confined to a restricted area in the Ganesh Himal. Often encoun-
tered on a blanket of moss, it may choose a variety of woody hosts, most
commonly Tsuga dumosa but also Rhododendron barbatum. It occupies
habitats between 8500 and 9200 ft. (2590-2810 m) in altitude, possi-
bly flowering in April and May. When it was first found by Stainton, it
was regarded as a pink-flowered variant of P. humilis, but distinctions sep-
arate the two species. In the case of P. coroncwm, the flower is made up of
the characteristic petals and sepals together with the most prominent lip,
or labellum. With most pleiones, and markedly so in P. humilis., the mar-
gin of the lip is crinkled and fringed, but in P. coronaria the margin is
made up of a row of entire lamellae, or ridges of callus. Pleione coronaria
may be found growing with P. humilis but this latter species can be spot-
ted easily when in growth by its characteristic medusa-like heads of young
bulbils sprouting from the crowns of the previous year's pseudobulbs.

Pleione humilis in cultivation WILHELM SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 83

I hope that the restricted locality of this unique species will be pro-
tected from the ravages of deforestation, but another danger threatens.
From time to time, these pleiones are offered by wholesale nurseries in
Nepal to European customers. On one occasion 5000 pseudobulbs of
Pleione coronaria were offered in the trade after being collected in the
Ganesh Himal. This species is ranked as vulnerable by the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature, which should encourage us as
gardeners to be sure to purchase nursery-grown material and not wild-
collected plants.
For those just starting out with these lovely orchids, a few tips on cul-
tivation may be beneficial. The best containers for growing pleiones are
clay pans up to 6 in. (15 cm) in depth. Normal pans are 3 in. (8 cm) in
depth, but however deep, they must have plenty of drainage holes. The
compost may be quite simple or more complicated in formation—a pop-
ular and simple formula is one part coarse grade perlite, one part com-
posted bark, and one part chopped sphagnum moss for retaining mois-
ture. It is this last ingredient which is most important for the Himalayan
species, as the habitat has indicated.
After the summer growing season, pleiones will go dormant during
the autumn, with the exception of the Himalayan Pleionepruecox, which
flowers late and rests during the winter. By late November the leaves of
all pleiones will have dropped and they will have no living roots. All
pleiones are best grown in a greenhouse during the winter resting pe-
riod. From resting until the flowering buds can be seen, the night tem-
perature should be between 32 and 40°F (0-4°C). A greenhouse will
need the provision of a supplementary heater to lift the temperature at
night as an air frost will damage the pseudobulbs. The pans may alterna-
tively be kept in a well-aired, cool but frost-free room in the home. All
pleiones, whether they be autumn- or spring-flowering should be repot-
ted during this rest period in late November or early December.
Having prepared our chosen compost with the suggested ingredients
we will now take the cleaned pans and place a piece of Vie-in. (1-2 mm)
stainless steel mesh over the drainage holes to prevent the entry of pests.
The slightly moist compost may now be placed in the pan nearly to the
top. It should not be firmed in any way. The pseudobulbs are now care-
84 CHAPTER THREE

fully positioned about 1 in. (2.5 cm) apart and compost placed around
them at about half their height. The compost at this stage, should be
moist, but only just, as the young shoots are susceptible to rotting if it is
too wet. As the flower buds begin to show, the night temperature should
be held at about 42°F (5°C) with a corresponding rise of up to 42°F
(5°C) in the day temperature due to the sun's heat. The first signs of aph-
ids may appear now, and a thorough spray of a systemic insecticide will
prevent damage from this pest to the emerging flowers. A little water may
be given at this stage. At flowering time transfer the plants from the
greenhouse where they were held over winter into a glasshouse or cold
frame. Many people will keep them under glass all year round.
When the leaves start to form from late April onwards, take care to pro-
vide shading from direct sunlight. Once the flowers have gone over by
late May, the leaves will be growing vigorously. At this stage give the
plants a foliar feed with a nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium, or NPK,
ratio of 2:1:1 (such as Chempak no. 2 in the United Kingdom) at one-
third the recommended strength. Water this into the compost at weekly
intervals.
At the end of May the pans may be removed from the glasshouse and
transferred into a cold frame or a bench where they will receive light but
be protected from the sun when it is at its maximum elevation in mid-
June. During hot and dry spells take care to water the plants while en-
suring that the compost never becomes soggy. It is best to allow the pans
almost to dry out between waterings. The most beneficial action during
such spells is to frequently dampen down the foliage with a fine rose at-
tached to the watering can. In the evening after a hot day they appreciate
an overhead spray.
Continue feeding until the leaves have reached full size in about early
June. Then change the formula to reduce the nitrogen and increase the
potash, or potassium, as this will help to ripen the pseudobulbs and pro-
duce flower buds. A recommended feed would be an NPK ratio of 1:2:2
(such as Chempak no. 8 in the United Kingdom). By the end of Septem-
ber the leaves will start to turn yellow, eventually turn brown and then
fall off. Watering can be reduced and then ceased when the leaves have all
gone.
 TEMPERATE ZONE 85

Once the night temperatures begin to fall it is appropriate to bring the

pans under cover again, either into a greenhouse or the house, where their
moisture supply can be controlled. Whilst plants are still out in the open
they may need some supplementary covering during long wet spells.
Pests and diseases are minimal with the exception of one very serious
scourge. It is a minucx te, false spider mite by the name of Brevipalpus.,
which can just be seen with the naked eye as a tiny spot on the undersides
of the pseudobulbs. It is the saliva that these mites secrete that is so harm-
ful, causing the growth of leaves and roots to cease in severe cases or be-
come stunted in slight attacks.
Commercial growers can utilise a chemical by the name of Childion
which, when diluted to the recommended dose, is applied as a soak for the
dormant pseudobulbs. Badly affected plants may have to be destroyed by
the amateur grower until an effective control is supplied to the general
public. Care must also be taken when purchasing new stock, to ensure it is
free ofBrevipalpw. It appears that both ivy and some ferns act as hosts for
the pest so these should not be grown beside pleiones. Care must also be
taken to control mice during the winter, as they will eat the pseudobulbs.
Propagation is quite simple. Lift the dormant pseudobulbs each year
in early December and cut away all the dead roots. Pleione pseudobulbs
are of annual duration only, so throw away the old shrivelled bulbs at this
stage. With some species, each large pseudobulb should produce two or
perhaps three flowering-sized pseudobulbs each year. These are about the
size of a rosebud. The Himalayan species are slow to increase, but as men-
tioned before, P. humilis produces a mass of tiny bulbils which may be
dibbled in to the same compost as that for the flowering-sized pseudo-
bulbs. In the case of all these little bulbils it is best to cover them com-
pletely and exercise patience, as they will take two to three years to reach
flowering size.
Each grower will no doubt experiment with a choice of compost for-
mula according to the local prevailing growing conditions, but few re-
wards are greater than a crowded pan of pleiones in full flower. While the
four Himalayan species may prove more challenging of culture than the
countless hybrids raised from Chinese parents, they are a valuable part of
the Himalayan flora and of immense importance in horticulture.
86 CHAPTER THREE

The Peat Garden

Many keen plantsfolk have found that, employing a peat garden has
served them well, providing an ideal home for a variety of plants, in-
cluding many Himalayan species. Yet, some people will ask, will this type
of landscape put further pressure on a commodity which is already under
threat? I feel it wise to look at the use of peat from as wide a perspective
as possible. Exercising conservation in the peat industry is undoubtedly
important. At the same time we might look to countries like Russia, Fin-
land and Latvia, just three lands in possession of vast reserves of peat
which could be exported, providing welcome income to them without
damaging the more fragile peatlands in other parts of the world.
One reason that this is a type of gardening that will have broad appeal
is that it can be as large or small as desired. For example, the much-visited
peat garden laid out in the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh covers a
large area, while I have just constructed one that fits into a shady corner,
10 by 6 ft. (3 by 2 m), and contains more than fifty plants. This type of
feature is such a useful component in the Himalayan garden because (1)
it is relatively cheap to construct, (2) it requires only a small area of land
and (3) certain plant species thrive in this situation as in no other artificial
setting. Dedicated gardeners will experience a greater measure of success
with certain plants in a peat garden because of the environment's mois-
ture retention, its extra coolness and its provision of unimpeded root
run, the last of which is essential for many Himalayan subjects.
An early reference to peat walls appeared in the journal of the Royal
Horticultural Society in 1927 in an article on Logan Gardens in the
south-west of Scotland. At that time the owners constructed the peat
walls to support terraces of soil in which were planted dwarf rhododen-
drons along with lilies, primulas and meconopses, many of which were
new introductions that George Forrest and Reginald Farrer had collected
in China. Later in the century, a number of famous gardens in the United
Kingdom included peat gardens such as the Royal Botanic Garden in Ed-
inburgh, the Savill Garden at Windsor Great Park and the Royal Horti-
cultural Society's Garden at Wisley. These constructions have been in the
main on a large scale.
Let me suggest a landscape on a smaller scale. Where space is restricted,
 TEMPERATE ZONE 87

a peat garden will open opportunities that simply do not exist with other
types of gardening, provided that the peat blocks used in the construc-
tion are of good quality and are not allowed to dry out. The species I sug-
gest, when planted between the blocks of peat, will send out runners
helping to bind the blocks together and to break up a potential sterile
look.

WHAT IS PEAT?
Peat is formed in several stages and develops in a variety of forms. The se-
quence of its development begins when water flows into a basin or hol-
low and the ground becomes sodden. The endemic flora in such a habi-
tat is typically made up of sedges, cotton grass and various mosses, most
notably sphagnum. These plants grow and die, and their residue falls to
the bottom of the hollow, building up so that the water becomes shal-
lower. As the dead plant material falls below the water level its decompo-
sition continues in the absence of air, thus forming peat. This is known as
basin peat.
This gradual development takes a very long period of time and at this
stage the surface vegetation, predominantly sphagnum moss, begins to
form the next type of peat known as raised bog or raised moss. Raised
bog peat is the youngest peat, though still many thousands of years old,
and typically in central Ireland it can be 30 ft. (9 m) deep. This young
sphagnum peat can hold up to twenty times its own weight of water. This
moisture retention is a great asset for growing some of the more chal-
lenging Himalayan species.

LOCATION & CONSTRUCTION

A peat garden can be constructed in a small space within a garden. Ideal
sites for the peat garden are the north side of a building, perhaps a diffi-
cult north-facing slope, or the shady side of small trees and shrubs, yet
not directly under their canopy. The small peat garden is essentially an
attractive part contributing to the garden as a whole, yet it is very per-
sonal, perhaps the home for a collection of special plants and individual
favourites that can only be grown successfully in such a dedicated habitat.
I must emphasise that this is a home for lime-hating plants. Readers may
88 CHAPTER THREE

think that because this is a specialised unit of peat blocks with an artificial
acid soil infill, it can be constructed over an alkaline substrate. Sadly this
will result in much extra work combating the effects of alkaline water
leaching into the area from higher ground.
A good site is on a naturally sheltered gentle slope, yet not at the low-
est point. Many of the plants for the peat garden are early flowering. Al-
though the lowest point will attract beneficial moisture, notably on a
light soil, it may also be a frost hollow. My experience shows that in April
here on the east coast of Scotland we are almost always subjected to late,
rolling radiation frosts that play havoc with early bloom and fresh
growth. It would be grand not to need protective fleece spread all over
the garden. Dwarf rhododendrons, cassiopes and even the new growth
on some petiolarid primulas have been badly damaged, sometimes fa-
tally, by late frosts. Do have this keenly in mind when choosing a site.
In consideration of where to locate the peat garden, I must relate an
alarming experience with drips from an overhead deciduous tree canopy.
I have never noticed any detrimental effects of planting any subjects di-
rectly in a natural woodland. That said, I once chose to site "in my nurs-
ery area" a collection of containerised stock plants, consisting mainly of
hardy orchids and liliaceous species (Lilium, Nomocharis and Cardiocrin-
um), which meant putting them under a canopy of deciduous trees
including hornbeam (Cnrpinus) and hazel (Corylus}. During a wet spell in
the summer months I noticed a sudden scorching effect on the lush foli-
age of the stock plants, which led to dire consequences. We all know the
effect of industrially induced acid rain. Further study may reveal acids
and other toxins that are released from the foliage of certain deciduous
trees and the type of effects likely to be realised on susceptible plants. In
the meantime I suggest caution.
An open, exposed site with a southerly aspect will almost assuredly
cause a severe drying out of the project and a complete desiccation of the
peat blocks. In dry areas supplementary irrigation will be necessary. Po-
rous piping will prove beneficial for the plants while the peat blocks will
need a gentle hosing down with an appropriate rose, or hose-end sprayer,
in April, May and June.
Before constructing the peat garden the site needs to be cleared of any
 TEMPERATE ZONE 89

perennial weeds that could establish in the garden and prove almost im-
possible to eradicate. Obtaining the right peat blocks may prove to be a
challenge. Look for a prime cut, a block of finest quality sphagnum peat,
solid yet fibrous, in a block about 18 by 12 by 9 in. (46 by 30 by 23 cm).
It sounds like being sent to the butcher for a prime cut of beef, and in-
deed so, we are just as concerned about the quality of peat blocks. Most
suppliers are concerned with peat for fuel, but peat for burning is of no
use in the garden. Be specific and ask for decent-sized blocks of the finest
quality.
If the blocks are weathered and dry when delivered place them all in a
tank of water, and weight them down until they have absorbed sufficient
water to be useful for the construction.
To construct the peat bed, place the peat blocks as for bricks (see fig-
ure). The wall should always lean backwards, keeping the rear of the
blocks in contact with the soil. Low walls of about 2 ft. (60 cm) high are
easy to both construct and maintain. Position the blocks to give the im-
pression, once the plants grow in, that they are bound together with
plants, rather than being too much of a feature themselves, as are the
rocks in a rock garden. One's artistic flair can come to the fore—the
blocks can be cut with a sharp bread knife to any desired size. The whole
look can be quite informal according to one's desire.

The correct way to lay peat blocks

9O CHAPTER THREE

Once the blocks have been positioned it is important that no air gaps
remain either behind or between them. I recommend back filling with
equal parts soil and granular peat, allowing for inevitable sinkage.
Though peat is an inert substance that does not supply nutrient to the
plants, no fertilisers should be applied prior to planting, as some of the
chosen plants will want little or no added feeding. The only addition that
I would consider at this stage, and certainly an integral part of this type
of garden, is some stepping stones. Do not consider walking on the peat
blocks. They would be severely damaged, and the very nature of the peaty
soil that we have back filled with will not withstand footprints either at
planting or for general maintenance. The stepping stones should not be
overly intrusive but rather simply large enough for any work to be carried
out without stepping on the soil.
Prior to positioning any plants it is important to be comfortable about
the condition of the soil, allowing plenty of time for settlement. It would
be beneficial to lightly tread the whole area then rake it over when it is
not too moist and if necessary add further back-fill prior to commencing
with planting.

SHRUBS & DWARF WOODY SPECIES

As with most types of gardening choose the larger plants first as a back-
bone for the intended landscape. A few shrubs may be selected for this pur-
pose, one or two deciduous species with added autumn colour and some
evergreens such as the dwarf rhododendrons. At this stage I must issue a
mild word of warning about some wonderful shrubby species, particu-
larly amongst the dwarf Vaccinium and Gaultheria species, that have the
capacity to travel a little farther than is usually anticipated. Be cautious.
For a modest construction, perhaps about 25 ft. (8 m) in length with a
two-tier terrace and a total width of 9 ft. (2.7 m), let me recommend
some fine Himalayan species to plant in both the walls and the bed area.
So wide is the choice of species and hybrids from the wonderful genus
Rhododendron that restricted space will determine the range to plant in
the peat garden. It may be that one or two species may be chosen pri-
marily for their form and foliage colour rather than for their outright
blossom. Here is a selection to choose from.
 TEMPERATE ZONE 91

A relatively dwarf species of great note is Rhododendron anthopogon,

widespread in the Himalaya and not surprisingly variable in habit and
flower colour with forms as dwarf as 1 ft. (30 cm) and others up to 3 ft.
(90 cm). A lovely cultivar to look out for is R. anthopogon 'Betty Graham'
(L.S. 1091) with deep pink flowers. It earned an Award of Merit from
the Royal Horticultural Society in 1969. Another fine one is R. anthopo-
gon Annapurna' (S.S.W. 9090) with lemon-yellow flowers. Rhododen-
dron anthopogon is certainly a first-class species with fine forms to choose
from. In this type of garden I could not be without a few selections of
the variable species R. calostrotum, with a wide distribution from north-
eastern Burma, now Myanmar, south-eastern Tibet and into Sichuan.
I wish I could understand the botanists' revisions of the genus Rhodo-
dendron, particularly regarding this species. As is so often the case, a gulf
of difference resides between the view a scientist perceives through the
microscope and the view a horticulturist develops through years of han-
dling these plants—oh, for a sensible marriage between the two. I always
refer to the common-sense view of Rhododendron as seen by Cox who
often merges the classifications of both Cullen and Chamberlain with
Davidian. The superb species R, calostrotum comes into this category of
confused nomenclature. Look out for .R. calostrotum subsp. calostrotum
'Gigha', awarded a First Class Certificate in 1971. It offers a lovely com-
bination of masses of rose-crimson flowers over compact, glaucous foli-
age. Rhododendron calostrotum subsp. keleticum is a prostrate or mound-
forming plant with neat foliage and large purplish crimson, widely fun-
nel-shaped flowers. From a horticultural point of view this form should
enjoy specific ranking rather than being sunk into the realms of R. calos-
trotum.
When choosing dwarf rhododendrons it may be a good idea to visit a
garden collection of both species and hybrids to help make a personal
choice from the vast array in the horticultural trade. A useful but variable
species for the peat garden \sRhododendwnfastigmtum, a native of Yun-
nan with a more compact, mound-forming habit than its name would
suggest. Fine glaucous foliage and masses of light purple to blue-purple
spring flowers adorn these low, up to 2-ft. (60-cm) bushes. When choos-
ing a good blue-flowering species I could not go beyond R. idoneum
92 CHAPTER THREE

from Yunnan and Sichuan, which I always felt gave the best true-blue-
coloured flowers. But when checking out availability of this species I
found confusion surrounding its name. In the reclassification of the
genus Rhododendron by James Cullen and David Chamberlain in 1973,
the name R. idoneum was lost, being sunk into the species R. telmateium,
a quite different plant with lavender to rose-pink flowers. From a horti-
cultural point of view JR.. idoneum would have been better retained as a
separate taxon. Suffice it to say that this is a species well worth seeking
from a specialist nursery. The modern hybrids, on the other hand, have
made a great impact in horticulture the world over and have come into
their own in this type of garden project. Rhododendron 'St. Merryn' is gen-
uinely compact and a wonderful blue-flowered hybrid having R. imped-
itum and R. 'St. Tudy5 as parents.
Moving on to some of the finest dwarf rhododendrons with yellow
flowers, I have found Rhododendron lepidostylum to be reasonably hardy
on the east coast of Scotland. It has a compact habit with wonderful sil-
very, glaucous foliage and large, pale yellow flowers in May. As far as
award-winning hybrids are concerned, there are many to choose from.
My preference would be the hardy range of hybrids raised by Peter and
Kenneth Cox of Glendoick, Perthshire, in Scotland. Surely the reason for
producing a hybrid is to enhance the vigour of a plant and reproduce a
superior progeny. In the case of this genus the results can be very pro-
nounced, as with the superb R. 'Chikor3, proving to be one of the most
popular of all dwarf hybrid rhododendrons, compact in habit with
masses of pendulous, yellow flowers. It is a hybrid between R. rupicola
var. chryseum and R. ludlowii. Another outstanding yellow-flowering hy-
brid with a spreading nature is R. 'Curlew5, a sight to behold when in full
flower in May. I love the unusually coloured hybrid raised by Ticknor in
the United States, R* 'Shamrock', a cross between R. keiskei and R. hance-
anum 'Nanum' forming a compact bush with chartreuse-yellow flowers.
To introduce some variation in height, I suggest Rhododendron race-
mosum, a species with a more erect habit widespread in the province of
Yunnan. A variety of forms are available. Rhododendron racemosum 'Rock
Rose' produces lovely clear pink flowers in profusion during April and
May on erect bushes attaining 4-5 ft. (1.2-1.5 m). A plant showing a
 TEMPERATE ZONE 93

Rhododendron rupicola var. chryseum with Corydalis cashmeriana, Schachen Garden,

southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT
94 CHAPTER THREE

similar habit but dwarfer in stature is the hybrid R. 'Anna Baldsiefen',

raised in the U.S., with clusters of vibrant, star-shaped pink flowers in
April. A compact species widely available in the trade yet restricted in its
distribution in nature is R. sargentianum, found in only a few localities
in Sichuan. Forming dense mounds, this species generally displays
flowers of a delicate cream to pale yellow. The hybrid R. 'Sarled' is the
progeny of R. sargentianum crossed with R. trichostomum. It is similar to
R. sargentmnum with flowers opening pink and turning to white. Two
of the showiest white-flowering hybrids making a significant contribu-
tion in gardens are the American R. 'Dora Amateis', proving a wonderful
hardy addition with large white blooms lightly tinged pink and growing
up to 2 ft. (60 cm), and Cox's R. 'Ptarmigan', which remains compact
with a profusion of purest white flowers in late spring.
Meriting pride of place in the peat garden, yet at no time tolerating
dry conditions, is Rhododendron campylqgynum, widespread in the Hi-
malaya from south-eastern Tibet to Yunnan. Over compact little bushes
always are the joy of nodding, thimble-shaped flowers from May through
to June, somewhat extending the season of rhododendron bloom. There
are a number of clones and my experience is that once one meets the fas-
cination of this species, the search is always on for better forms. Rhodo-
dendron campylogynum var. myrtilloides has mauve-pink thimbles, while
R. campylqgynum 'Bodnant Red' grows a little more erect and produces
lovely crimson-red flowers.
I cannot conclude my list of recommendations from the seemingly
endless supply of rhododendrons on offer without describing two rather
rare and exciting species commemorating celebrated plant hunters. Rho-
dodendron lowndesii was first introduced by Lowndes from the Marsyandi
Valley of central Nepal in 1950. This little treasure demands a sheltered
position tucked between peat blocks where the deciduous shrublet will
form a neat mat studded with numerous flat, yellow blooms on erect
pedicels. The second is Kingdon Ward's Rpumilum (K.W. 6961), known
popularly as Kingdon Ward's Pink Baby, quite simply one of the most
charming and pleasing of the dwarf forms amongst this significant genus.
He would have been justly proud of his introduction, which gained an
Award of Merit in 1935. It is distributed widely from eastern Nepal
 TEMPERATE ZONE 95

through Sikkim into south-eastern Tibet, where it is plentiful. Ludlow

and Sherriff reported a local colony in the latter region displaying pure
white flowers, what a fine introduction this would have been. The type
species grows typically in a bun up to 9-12 in. (23-30 cm) with trusses
of up to three pink, thimble-like flowers. Although the plant is fully hardy
to 14°F (-10°C) and an evergreen, in harsher areas a cloche cover would
be prudent.
I can tolerate panes of glass or cloches in the garden on few occasions,
but I make exception for these two rhododendrons. They are distin-
guished plants requiring special position and glass cover during the cold-
est periods. Whilst training at the Munich Botanic Garden I was most
impressed by the practical, yet labour-intensive method of contending
with the hard winters by covering many parts of the rock garden and the
more tender plants with branches from evergreen conifers. With speci-
alised subjects such as these two rhododendrons, a few handfuls of loose,
dry larch (Larix) needles collected from the current autumnal leaf drop
can be tucked around the plant as extra protection in addition to the more
substantial cover provided by the branches. By employing practical meth-
ods such as these it is possible to grow a wider range of plants, including
some of the more tender subjects, with no fear of the ravaging effects of
winter.

Moving away from rhododendrons but remaining within the Ericaceae,

the heather family, I would like to introduce a few members that will
form the backbone of the peat bed. The genus Cassiope includes a number
of Himalayan species and garden hybrids which have made a massive im-
pact both in gardens and horticulture. In my nursery business, I have
found the greatest sales in general usually come between the months of
April and June, which coincides with popular flower shows where ex-
hibits of spring-flowering plants have included bold shrublets ofCassiope
hybrids hidden with a snow-like cover of white bells. A more eye-catch-
ing sight is hard to create.
I cannot overlook another abiding memory of the spring shows of the
Scottish Rock Garden Club, really amateur classes held around the major
towns and cities in Scotland. I recall the sight of the late Harold Essie-
96 CHAPTER THREE

mont and Jack Crossland carrying huge pots of Cassiope wardii bulging
with hairy, whipcord-like foliage clothed with myriads of wholesome,
hanging creamy-white bells. Long before the judges carried out their du-
ties, I would cast a mere glance at such a beautifully grown specimen and
promptly reach the personal decision that, yes, another Forrest Medal

Cassiope wardii, Inshriach Alpine Nursery, Aviemore JIM JERMYN

 TEMPERATE ZONE 97

for the most meritorious plant in the show would go to the now-cele-
brated growers. One day it was my pleasure to welcome Crassland and
his wife at our nursery, and prior to their tour around the garden Cross-
land opened up the boot of his car to reveal a huge pot with a specimen
of C. wardii growing in a mass of live sphagnum moss. He could no
longer manage the growing and showing of such plants and wanted to
pass on this multi-medal-winning specimen. I felt a great weight of re-
sponsibility as he added wistfully, "You'll have cuttings rooted in no time
and offer it in your catalogue!" Here is a subject almost impossible to
strike from cuttings, yet it is easily propagated by layering or by disen-
tangling the underground stems with their tiny root hairs and bringing
them on in a pack of sphagnum moss. Grassland's generosity is a feature
of a generation now passing away, but hopefully those of us now shoul-
dering the charge of growing such choice plants will emulate our prede-
cessors in encouraging youngsters into the wonderful pastimes of horti-
culture and gardening.
Cassiope wardii (L.S.T. 4734) was first collected by the late Sir George
Taylor in south-eastern Tibet by the Tsangpo Gorge, and must surely be
one of the most striking and beautiful of all the Himalayan species. He
found it growing amongst rhododendrons on open moorland as well as
in large colonies on exposed gravel banks where it must have been a sight
to behold with its fastigiate branches of tightly ranked leaves covered with
silvery, silky hairs and huge white bells. In the peat garden, it is crucial
that the site for these splendid cassiopes when flowering in April and May
will be protected from the first sunlight following a late frost which will
most assuredly spoil the blooms. A plant association including this Cas-
siope noted by Ludlow and SherrifFin south-eastern Tibet would be well
worth re-enacting in our gardens; it includes Omphalq0ramma vincaeflo-
rum and nivalid Primula calliantha along with Lilium souliei and L. nan-
urn. This combination uses the very nature of these spreading evergreen
cassiopes to provide just the protection the other subjects are looking for.
I will turn again to omphalogrammas near the close of this chapter.
A second species ofCa-ssiope is the exquisite C. sdqginoides, available in
the trade under its superlative form C. selaginoides (L.S.I3284), which
gained an Award of Merit in 1954. It is akin to C. wardii yet exhibits nar-
98 CHAPTER THREE

rower, erect whipcord growth while still showing off its immense white
globular flowers held well clear of the foliage. A number of easily grown
hybrids of great horticultural merit were raised by the late R.B. Cooke
of Corbridge, Northumberland. Two such hybrids are both readily avail-
able in the trade. Cassiope 'Muirhead' is the finest of all hybrids, claiming
its parents as C. wardii and the Japanese native C. lycopodioides and form-
ing strong, compact shrublets with downy foliage and the characteristic
white, bell-shaped flowers. Cassiope 'Randle Cooke' is parented by an-
other fine Himalayan species, C. fastigiata., less often seen in nurseries,
together with the prostrate C. lycopodioides. Although distinct, they bear
a resemblance and are easily grown. Cassiope 'Randle Cooke' is generally
more vigorous in habit and shows a less downy growth. It is a wonder-
ful free-flowering subject for the peat bed.

Cassiopefastigiatci DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 99

Both the genera Gaultheria and Vaccinium play an important role as

valuable dwarf evergreen shrubs that serve to bind the peat blocks to-
gether, at the same time providing superb cover for some bulbous sub-
jects. Gaultheria cuneatft was introduced by Ernest Wilson from the Chi-
nese province of Sichuan and forms wide, shrubby mats of wedge-shaped
glossy foliage that assumes attractive reddish tints at the close of the sea-
son. In August, showy white fruits, or "orbs," are a highlight until visit-
ing birds recognise their attraction. Gaultheria nummularioides is one of
my favourite species ever since first enjoying its scrambling habit on the
peat walls at Jack Drake's wonderful nursery near Aviemore, under the
Cairngorm Mountains. It is found widespread in the Himalaya and was
introduced on several occasions, including the expedition of Len Beer in
eastern Nepal. The species is a superb prostrate subject with wiry shoots
carrying its leaves in pairs with attractive pinkish flowers and purplish-
black fruits. A few species with startling blue fruits are deserving of a po-
sition in the peat garden, including the much sought-after G. sinensis, in-
troduced from Burma by Kingdon Ward. Foliage that produces attractive
autumnal tints of reddish orange is perfect company for the large blue
fruits. The two species G. thymifolia and G. trichophylla, are similar, the lat-
ter being the stronger grower but both binding the peat blocks together
in a most attractive way with neat foliage and greenish blue fruits in the
autumn. All these gaultherias can be easily propagated from ripened cut-
tings—those from the new season's growth, also called soft wood cut-
tings—in the late summer or from seed. Carefully extract the seed from
the fruits after they have been allowed to partially dry out, which will ease
removal of the seeds from the pith.
Vaccinium serves a purpose similar to that of Gaultkeria. The most
popular species play host to the favourite berries collected on acid moor-
land and bogs and turned into tasty tarts, pies and sauces to accompany
fine main courses such as venison. But instead of getting carried away
with the culinary delights of this genus, let me return to the peat garden
where a selection of these shrubs will provide fine background for some
special Nomocharis species or liliaceous plants. If the garden can allow sev-
eral feet of space a good choice would be the vigorous, large-leafed Vac-
(B.L.M. 251), found in eastern Nepal and reintro-
IOO CHAPTER THREE

Fruits of Gaultheria trichophylla, Langtang, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT

duced by Beer in 1972. Its oval leathery leaves are outstandingly glau-
cous on the upper surface, and large blue-black fruits appear in the au-
tumn. At the other extreme is the neatly growing V. moupinense, which is
somewhat similar to V. delavayi. My experience has been that the attrac-
tive evergreen foliage reliably colours to a lovely orange in the autumn,
giving the peat garden valuable late colour. Another distinct dwarf species
is the Himalayan V. nummulana noted for its bristly, arching shoots with
double rows of small attractive leaves. The rose-red flowers are held in
dense clusters and followed by edible black berries.

BULBS & CORMS

The following subjects may not immediately seem to conform to the
category of bulbs and corms, but a rather thin line differentiates a tuber-
 TEMPERATE ZONE IOI

ous root and a non-tuberous root or a bulb and a plant with a persistent
leaf base. A bulb can be formed in several different ways. Think of an
onion as a classic bulb; it consists of swollen fleshy bases of leaves. A corm
such as typified by the crocus is a swollen stem base often surrounded by
the dry bases of old leaves. A potato, then, is a fine example of a swollen
underground stem, often called a stem tuber or rhizome. A root tuber is
a fleshy root which may be single or branched as in Roscoea. Armed with
these basic botanical explanations I would like to highlight a few genera
that simply thrive in the peat garden situation and provide much of the
"cream," as it were, for this mini landscape.
Many of the Himalayan species of Lilium have been considered diffi-
cult, possibly as many gardeners have attempted to grow them either in
pots or in too dry a situation. If there is a group that we in the trade will
sometimes refer to as being a challenge—in other words nearing the im-
possible but not so as to detract from sales—it is the alpine species from
the Sino-Himalaya that require cool, moist conditions yet never can be
waterlogged. This challenging group, including L. souliei andL. lophopho-
rum, should thrive in the peat wall when the specimens are planted di-
rectly between the blocks where they can be kept permanently cool. Two
closely related species that require room to travel about as they spread by
underground lateral stolons are L. lankongense andL. duchartrei. The for-
mer is found growing widespread in scrub and shrubberies in Yunnan
and lends itself admirably to scrambling in amongst dwarf Rhododendron
or Vaccinium where the 3-ft. (90-cm) flower stems can be held amongst
the shrubs to show off the fine turk's-cap flowers, often up to six in num-
ber, of a pale rose-pink spotted with purple and beautifully fragrant. Lil-
ium duchartrei, growing from Gansu to Yunnan in China, is of the same
habit and stature but displays superb heavily spotted, white flowers. Both
are easily propagated by lifting the bulbils during the dormant season.
A species that seems to have taken an unusually long period to enter
the realms of horticulture, given its original introduction by George For-
rest in 1919, is Lilium henrici. He found it in the Kong-Salween divide on
the margin of thickets, and it is distributed locally in Yunnan. Growing
up to 3 ft. (90 cm) typically, the plant has open hood-like flowers of pure
white with a deep reddish purple blotch at the base of each petal, always
IO2 CHAPTER THREE

much admired at flowering time in late June. It has a clear link with
Nomocharis with which it could well be confused. Once obtained and es-
tablished it presents no more of a challenge than Nomocharis. Another
species closely related to Nomocharis is Lilium oxypetcdum and its variety L.
oxypetalum var. insigne. Both are easily grown and fit perfectly into the
peat garden amongst dwarf rhododendrons. The type species from the
western Himalaya grows to about 1 ft. (30 cm), carrying a single yellow
nodding flower. The variety L. oxypetalum var. insigne grows a little taller
and has somewhat fuller flowers more akin to L. mackliniae in a lovely
dusky pink colour. The dwarfest of the Himalayan species is Lilium
nanum found fairly widespread throughout the region, growing easily
and producing 3- to 4-in. (8- to 10-cm) stems, each with generally a soli-
tary, drooping, bell-shaped flower of purplish pink.
Two challenging plants should be given pride of place and sanctuary
by planting their bulbs between the peat blocks to ensure fewer extremes
of temperature and moisture content. The first is Lilium lophophorum,
rather special but by no means difficult in this situation, found fairly com-
monly in open woodland and in alpine meadows with dwarf Rhododen-
dron in Yunnan and Sichuan. Short stems of 6 to 9 in. (15-23 cm) carry
a solitary pendent flower, rarely two or three flowers, akin to a lemon-
yellow lantern. A wonderful species indeed is its neighbour L. souliei,
found in the same area but often preferring humus-rich soils. Almost re-
sembling flowers of Fritillaria., these once again solitary pendent bells are
deep maroon in stark contrast to their yellow relatives.
Closely related to the lilies is the distinct Notholirion which produces a
smaller bulb with a brown outer tunic. The most widely distributed of
the species is N. macrophyllum found from western Nepal through to
south-eastern Tibet at altitudes ranging from 9000 to 13,000 ft. (2750-
3970 m). This easily grown plant is most suitable in the peat garden
where it may be planted to good effect amongst dwarf rhododendrons.
The height of the flowering stems may be as short as 9-12 in. (23-30
cm) in nature, but in the garden they may reach up to 2 ft. (60 cm) with
up to five purple funnel-shaped flowers. As with other members of the
lily family, Liliaceae, this species easily may be raised from seed with flow-
ering expected some three years thereafter.
 TEMPERATE ZONE 103

Another close relative is the liliaceous germs Nomocharis., often thought

of as Himalayan plants for the aristocrat. The price of bulbs can indeed be
prohibitive, but this simply reflects the number of years that nurseries pa-
tiently have taken to bulk up the bulbs to a saleable age from seed, gen-
erally around five or six years without unnatural forcing or overfeeding
which can reduce the time period but also the quality. The peat garden is
as fine a home as can be given to this outstanding genus. The cool condi-
tions will certainly suit the bulbs. They are best left well alone once estab-
lished, meaning that seed must be relied upon as the means of propaga-
tion. The nomenclature of this genus has received the attention of botan-
ists since I commenced my apprenticeship, and I wonder what the late

Lilium nanum, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

IO4 CHAPTER THREE

Mary Knox-Finlay of Keillour Castle would have had to say. She, along
with her husband, grew these species together with many lilies to per-
fection. The specific names are of greatest importance when identifying
material in the wild, in this case notably in the Sino-Himalaya. Once we
have planted the bulbs of several species together in the peat garden and
have begun saving the seed to propagate material, the resulting progeny
will invariably share characteristics of each of the parents, revealing hy-
brids that will fit names such as the popular hybrids called N. xfinlayorum.
The nameNomocharis translated means "grace of the pasture" and ap-
propriately so, for they are all truly outstanding plants whatever the name
given to bulbs we purchase from the nursery. Two of the best-known spe-

Notholirion macrophyttum, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 105

cies, N. aperta and N. pardanthina, have been reintroduced in the 1990s

by the excellent expeditions organised by the Royal Botanic Garden in
Edinburgh to that rich haven for plants, the province of Yunnan. These
species were originally introduced into gardens by Forrest around 1914.
They are so closely allied to lilies—the main difference is that the flowers
of these Nomocharis species are much flatter and semi-nodding when fully
open. Nonwcharispardanthina now incorporates the very popular N. mai-
rei., which certainly does closely resemble it, and will grow up to 3 ft. (90
cm) in height with up to five flowers arising from the axils of the upper
leaves. The flowers are ample in size, often up to 3 in. (8 cm) across, pale
pink, blotched with purple, with the inner three tepals much broader
than the outer and characteristically fringed along the margin. Nonwcharis
aperta is similarly distributed in Yunnan and Sichuan and is often found
growing in moist soils amongst rhododendrons and the ground cover
Sorbus reducta. Both these species are widely available in the nursery trade.
Generally more slight of growth than N. pardanthina, N. aperta produces
one to three terminal flowers often a deep pink with numerous small dots

Nomocbarispardanthina,, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

IO6 CHAPTER THREE

and tepals without fringe. The final species available and easily grown in
these conditions is N. saluenensis, similar to N. aperta but with broader
foliage and dwarfer in stature. The large, open flowers are generally un-
spotted with a marked white throat. All Nomocharis species generally
flower during June and July in northern Britain.
Take care when preparing a position for and planting any of these spe-
cies or hybrids of Nomocharis and Lilium. Select a sheltered site where a
dark evergreen background will set off the delicate pink flowers. The
planting is best carried out in the spring with flowering-sized bulbs,
about the size of a shallot, before they come into growth. Prepare a hole
some 6 in. (15 cm) deep and incorporate a few handfuls of clean, gritty
sand together with the peaty soil, and then plant the bulbs a good 3-4
in. (8-10 cm) below the surface. Gently firm the soil and carefully mark
the site, adding a good watering to complete the job.
Closely related to both the genera Lilium andNomocharis is Fritittaria
cirrhosa, found in many parts of the Himalaya, Tibet and western China.
Although variable, most forms are very beautiful and will grow satisfac-
torily in exactly the same position as the lilies, where they gain support
amongst the branches of dwarf rhododendrons. The flowering stem will
grow typically up to about 1 ft. (30 cm) with a solitary flower, broadly
bell-shaped, green in colour with varying amounts of purple-brown and
lovely tessellations, or chequers. Fritillarm cirrhosa may be raised from
seed but takes up to five years to flower, as do the lilies.
Also in the lily family is a popular woodland plant performing ad-
mirably in the peat garden. Paris polyphylla is distributed throughout the
Himalaya from Kashmir through to China. It is a rather curious creeping
rhizomatous plant with leaves in a whorl and erect stems up to 12 in. (30
cm). The flowers are solitary surrounded by leaf-like perianth segments.
The showy white-flowered form of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, is stun-
ningly beautiful with lime-green to yellow perianth segments and a white
ovary. This plant was introduced by the successful Sino-British Cangshan
Expedition in 1981, giving it the collection number S.B.E. 1031. Once
the fruit is ripe it may be opened to reveal attractive orange-red seeds.
Along with simple division of the dormant clumps, propagate by sowing
the seeds as soon as they have been collected.
 TEMPERATE ZONE IO7

A fascinating group of Himalayan plants deserving some prominent

coverage for the peat garden is the genus Roscoea, a member of the ginger
family, Zingiberaceae. Few of the sixteen species found in the Sino-
Himalaya present any difficulty or prove tender when planted at least 6
in. (15 cm) deep in the peat garden. They all have curious fleshy roots of
a rubbery texture which prove brittle when handled, but once established
in the peat garden the plants will spread about, both underground and by
seed. They are amongst the last of all deciduous subjects to re-emerge
from the soil in May. The flowers are wonderfully exotic, reminiscent of
terrestrial orchids with a large lower lip. To bring out their best I recom-
mend a position that is not too shady. When planting, incorporate a gen-
erous amount of gritty sand to improve the immediate drainage around
the roots. Because of their late-spring to early-summer emergence, take
care with weeding to avoid damaging the dormant shoots. Most of the
species flower throughout the summer months, giving colour to the gar-
den at a most valuable time.

Fruit of Paris polyphylla in October, Lamjung, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
108 CHAPTER THREE

Now to highlight some popular species and personal favourites that

have made a notable impact in horticulture. The best known of all the
species is Roscoea ctmtleoides., found growing abundantly in Yunnan. It var-
ies in colour from its characteristic lemon-yellow, through white and pink
to fine shades of purple. Growing typically to 12 in. (30 cm), the flow-
ering stems carry several flowers in succession. Those who have seen
them in the wild become ecstatic when encountering them growing en
masse with their stemmed inflorescence held high, in clearings between
rhododendrons and pine thickets. Indeed it is a privilege to witness a for-
est floor dotted with flashes of lemon-yellow. I am sure the few who re-
ally appreciate what they have seen must hold to these abiding memories
for the rest of their days, just as the rest of us go back each year to our
own favourite bluebell wood or orchid meadow, satisfied that such an

Paris polypkylla var. yunnanensis f. alba, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh

JIM JERMYN
 TEMPERATE ZONE IO9

experience will keep us going until the following year. Surely that is just
what gardening is all about—taking a relatively small area of ground and
re-creating a patch of nature's unsurpassable beauty.
A later introduction is the easily grown Roscoea tibetica from western
China, south-eastern Tibet and Bhutan. Once again this plant can be seen
at its best in the Cangshan Mountains near Dali, Yunnan, carpeting the
pine-needle-covered floor of the forest. It is, though, equally at home in
lush meadows where it is seen growing up to 12 in. (30 cm) in height,
looking somewhat similar to its western cousin R. alpina which has
flowers varying in colour from deep purple to pinkish purple.
Some readers may be looking for the lovely species Roscoea humeana,,
occasionally found in cultivation. It, too, is common in Yunnan in all its
mid-purple, white and rare yellow forms. I have experienced some diffi-
culty growing this species in company with its cousins in a cool peat bed.
This may be due to the fact that in nature it frequently grows in a lime-
stone area with its root system firmly embedded in the limestone rocks,

Roscoea, alpina, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

IIO CHAPTER THREE

quite the opposite conditions to those of the peat garden. Roscoea pur-
purea, is amongst the easiest species to cultivate but requires more space
due to its inherent vigour. It is very similar to R. auriculata,, and the botan-
ical differences between them I am bound to say are too minor to worry
the gardener. Roscoeapurpurea, is fairly widespread in the Himalaya, with
showy flowers generally pale lilac to mauve. A stunning variant found in
the Ganesh Himal, Nepal, displays a remarkable burgundy-red flower.
Thus far it is named R. purpurea 'Red Gurkha' but is not yet available in
the trade. Though horticulture sometimes laments a major revision of a
genus with its resulting name changes, the wonderful revision ofRoscoea
carried out by Jill Cowley and published in the Kew Bulletin in 1982 was
much needed and widely accepted. I am a little baffled though by the
name R. scillifolia given to two very distinct plants that are highly suitable
for and worthy of a place in the peat garden. The first is a miniature form
with soft pink flowers appearing in August and September only a few
inches high and spreading happily by means of seed. The second is a plant
I once grew under the name R. yunnanensis. Now considered a form of
R. scillifolia, this plant is taller, growing up to 9 in. (23 cm), with distinct
plum-black flowers. The propagation of roscoeas is quite simple, with
the congested clumps easily but carefully divided during the growing sea-
son, which is short. Perhaps divide just after flowering. The root system,
like a mass of elongated jelly babies, or jelly beans, is brittle and should be
handled carefully. Tease apart the shoots and replant them deeply and
firmly. As autumn progresses the leaves of roscoeas will elongate and the
decaying flower-head will be well encapsulated in the sheath of upper
leaves. A notable swelling will indicate the location of the seed capsules,
which should be carefully removed and placed in a marked paper bag and
hung to ripen in a shed with a few windows to let in natural light. The
seeds can be sown around the turn of the year, and following germination
they will often reach flowering size in two years.
A popular genus belonging to the campanula family, Campanulaceae,
is Codonopsis. A number of its species will perform well in the peat gar-
den provided a spot is found that is not too shaded. The genus falls into
two groups, the first with carrot-like roots and the second with tuberous
roots like potatoes. The foliage has a characteristic pungent smell when
 TEMPERATE ZONE III

touched resembling that of a fox. Those with the odd-shaped potato-like

tubers tend to be of a twining nature. Of two good twining species, C.
convolvulacea is a fairly well-known species from the Himalaya through
to western China. The tubers should be planted at least 6 in. (15 cm)
deep at the base of a dwarf evergreen shrub such as a rhododendron or
Daphne retusa. The fragile shoots will emerge in early summer and need
a little help to reach into the branches of the neighbouring shrub. Wiry
stems will intertwine with the shrub's branches and produce broadly bell-
shaped, blue flowers with a marked reddish ring on the inside. Codonop-
sis convolvulacea 'Forrest's Form' has always been popular and has a larger
flower and more pronounced inner ring. At one time a stunning white
form was available in the trade as C. convolvulacea, Alba', but it is now
called C. nepalensis 'Himal Snow', a name which certainly conveys a little
more than the old one. It is simply a very fine pure white form that is well
worth looking out for. A second species I recommend was newly discov-
ered in the late 1990s in the Langtang region of Nepal. Named C.grey-
wilsonii it has broader flowers than C. convolvulacea that are pure white in
colour—an exciting introduction.
Of the non-twining types surely the queen of the genus is Codonopsis
dicentrifolia from Nepal. It has large, deep blue, scentless flowers che-
quered white within. It grows on ledges and in crevices on steep cliffs,
and I strongly recommend positioning the carrot-like roots between the
peat blocks and allowing a place for the attractive flowering stems to tum-
ble down. A species widely grown but often mistaken for its close relative
C. clematidea from Afghanistan, C. ovata is found in Kashmir. This easily
grown species produces attractive downy foliage and erect flowering
stems with solitary, pale blue, nodding bells beautifully marked within.
This genus is important for the peat garden as it flowers late in the season,
and with the exception of C. dicentrifolia, its species are not overly de-
manding of culture. All species are easily raised from seed.
To conclude the bulbs and corms I would like to highlight one of the
great joys of the peat garden, Corydalis, plants that enjoy the cooler climes
of Scotland, relative to the United Kingdom in general. Corydalis cash-
meriana should thrive in a cool, sheltered peat bed. A member of the
poppy family, Papaveraceae, this corydalis produces an intriguing root
112 CHAPTER THREE

system made up of congested, loosely scaly bulbs with swollen radish-

like roots from the base. These may be lifted carefully in the autumn and
teased apart as a vegetative means of propagation. Part of this plant's at-
traction is the finely dissected foliage which serves as the base to the dense
short racemes of brilliant blue flowers in late spring to early summer.
Once established the plants will spread by seed, showing little in the way
of variation. I have no doubt this subject would feature highly in every-
one's top ten choices for the peat garden. It owes its introduction to Lud-
low and Sherriff in 1933 from western Bhutan.
In the late 1990s, another exciting species was discovered farther east
than the typical location of Corydalis cashmeriana. From eastern Nepal
through to Sikkim comes the little known C. ecristata., first introduced by

Codonopsis ovata, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 113

the late George Smith, a true champion of the Nepalese flora and an en-
thusiastic plantsman so free with his vast knowledge and experience. I
have happy memories of viewing slides with him at his home where he
would brim over with excitement in telling of screes under the massif of
Makalu (27,800 ft.; 8480 m) dotted with the legendary Gentiana urnula,.,
or of meadows in eastern Nepal with a spectacular form of Primula calde-
riana, a sumptuous burgundy-wine colour alongside forests of Rhododen-
dron cinnabcmnum. While implanting the desire to travel to the Himalaya,
these descriptions should give greater insight into the growing of these
wonderful plants. Corydalis ecristata, is still hardly established in gardens.

Corydalis cashmeriana., Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

114 CHAPTER THREE

Once available, this miniature twin of C. cashmeriana with its equally eye-
catching, deep blue flowers should settle down nicely in the peat garden.

ANEMONE, PRIMULA & OTHER GENERA

Supporting a balanced view of continued plant hunting in the Himalaya
is the impact on horticulture made by the late-twentieth-century intro-
ductions of members of the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. Further
field study of Anemone is required to clarify the picture of the complex
group in the section Obtusiloba (Trullifolia). These species are ideal sub-
jects for the peat garden where a reasonable amount of light is guaran-
teed. They can be easily propagated and will provide important flower
colour over a long period of time. Anemones are a classic example of
plants' adaptability to differing climates. Though they are generally en-
countered in the subalpine zone, anemones fit admirably in the peat gar-
den, which provides conditions closely resembling those of the temper-
ate zone. This kind of cross-over is frequently experienced in the garden.
Anemone obtusiloba is a clump-forming perennial found throughout
the Himalaya as an alpine meadow plant with soft hairy foliage made up
of three to five toothed or cut lobes. The lobes seem to vary considerably
and I have not been able to sort out the proper identification of a form
widely available in commerce, a dwarf form with hairless foliage. The
flower colour is equally variable with white and blue predominating. A
very fine sulphur-yellow form, which is commonly found in the western
Himalaya, has been introduced by plantsman Ron McBeath and now is
offered in the nursery trade as A. obtusiloba, var. sulphured. A firm favour-
ite of mine is A. obtusiloba var. patula which I first remember seeing in a
raised bed at that great enterprise for alpine plants, Ingwersen's nursery
in Sussex. It has radiating flower stems bearing a seemingly unending
supply of deep blue flowers. This is clearly an early introduction, I be-
lieve one of Kingdon Ward's from Upper Burma, though few records
exist. How sad that this area and others like it have received little or no at-
tention from plant hunters for so many decades due to political uncer-
tainties. A wonderful opportunity beckons when people of varying eth-
nic groups can once again enjoy mutual trust and move freely amongst
one another sharing the plant heritage given to us to enjoy.
 TEMPERATE ZONE 115

One of the finest introductions from the botanical expedition to Cang-

shan in 1981 was Anemone trullifolia (S.B.E. 797). This is clearly a close
relative ofA obtusiloba; the most obvious difference is A. trullifoliri's un-
stalked and wedge-shaped foliage with three main lobes and little or no
toothing. The flowers commence in April and are always evident on es-
tablished clumps throughout the growing season. White flowers seem
to predominate over blue, which my daughter, fresh from a botany lesson
at school, explained is to be expected due to the effects of a dominant and
recessive gene. Her formula for figuring the percentage of white and blue
is remarkably accurate, and in addition to giving her a lot of pleasure
caused me to marvel at this positive aspect of science that has made such

Anemone obtusiloba, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

Il6 CHAPTER THREE

an impact in plant breeding. The white flowers generally have a blue back,
and the powder-blue-coloured forms are more subtle and deserve some
encouragement by reducing the white forms. The free production of seed
is remarkable; it seems as if within a few days of flowering the ovaries are
swelling and seeds, really achenes—fruiting bodies made up of fleshy
seeds—are sitting waiting to be nudged from their seats. As with most
buttercups, the seed should be collected when ripe and sown the same
day in a loam-based seed compost. Germination will generally take place
the following spring.
As private treks begin to be organised into Tibet, the exciting prospect
arises of making limited seed collections of entirely new species or rein-
troductions of material known only in the literature or as herbarium spec-
imens. A new plant was introduced from Tsari, south-eastern Tibet, in
1998, a botanical variant to the now popular Anemone truttifolia. The su-
perb golden yellow-flowered form named A. trullifolia var. linearis will
undoubtedly prove to be an extremely valuable introduction to horticul-
ture and peat gardens.
An early-flowering member of the same family is Adonis bremstyla., now
well established in gardens from its wide distribution in the Himalaya
and western China. It is often found in open woodland growing in dark
humus-rich soils. A deciduous, clump-forming species with characteris-
tic dark green, ferny foliage, the plant has showy flowers in early spring
that give it such value for the peat bed. Its 6-in. (15-cm) stems carry large,
white buttercup flowers with a mauve tint to the back of the petals. I
would not recommend lifting species of Adonis for division. Instead, look
for seed which ripens in the same way as that of the anemones but with
a tighter head of achenes which can be gently removed when ripe and
again sown immediately to ensure success.
The peat bed is certainly an ideal home for a variety of Himalayan spe-
cies of Primula, and it is going to be a challenge to know where to draw
the line so as not to dominate the planting with too great a number of
these lovely plants. Do excercise will power, because to tip the balance of
genera in one direction, notably with the genus Primula., is very danger-
ous to the health of the entire garden. The well-known pest called the
vine weevil has become a great problem in horticulture, occupying much
 TEMPERATE ZONE 117

of scientists' and nursery managers' time in the search for a safe and effec-
tive control. This appalling pest is most dangerous at the larval stage
when the tiny grubs will ravage collections of plants, particularly primu-
las, in the space of months as they eat the roots of the plants to destruc-
tion. Chapter 7 discusses various types of control, but do take great care
not to welcome the pest in a needless way by overplanting primulas.
Though primulas figure throughout this book, readers will no doubt
find a brief description of the breakdown of sections in this vast genus
Primula helpful here in this chapter. The species and section names fa-
miliar to most gardeners are those proposed in the classification of the
genus as carried out in 1948 by Wright Smith and Fletcher. The work
carried out in 1961 by Wendelbo is equally scholarly and follows a view-
point based on the evolutionary chain. I choose to follow the more pop-
ular and more easily understood version by Wright Smith and Fletcher.
To help familiarise readers with this classification, the botanical sections
are given in the following headings, with Wendelbo's names in paren-
theses when appropriate.

SECTION NIVALES (Crystallophhmis}

The species belonging to the section Nivales are marked by their large,
mealy overwintering, or resting, buds. The flowers generally form an
umbel on a stout stem. Many species are challenging to grow, but the
peat garden presents a fine opportunity for them. Finding a substitute
for the winter snow cover that they experience in the Himalaya is a diffi-
culty, and some will benefit from a cloche cover to protect the resting
buds from winter wet.
Where space provides, I would plant a group of Primula chionantha
and P. chionantha subsp. sinopurpurea. If planted together they will be
sure to hybridise. The species is one of the largest and easiest to grow,
with typically spear-shaped leaves, flower stems up to 18 in. (46 cm), and
one or more whorls of pure white flowers. The flowers are purple-pink in
the subspecies. Both these fine forms are commonly found in China in
the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan.
A widely distributed species found in Kashmir, Nepal and Sikkim is
Primula macrophylla, a lovely species amenable to the peat garden. It is
Il8 CHAPTER THREE

Primula chionantha subsp. sinopurpurea, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 TEMPERATE ZONE 119

more slender thanP chionantha but in its best forms has white, mealy fo-
liage and 9- to 12-in. (23- to 30-cm) stems carrying an umbel of several
blue to purplish flowers often with a dark eye. At high altitude in the west-
ern Himalaya, notably in Kashmir, is a dwarfer variety named P. macro-
phylla var. moorcroftmna well worth looking out for in seed exchanges.
Due to the wide distribution of Primula obliqua, from eastern Nepal
and Sikkim into Bhutan, it is only a matter of time before this species be-

Primula macrophylla, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

I2O CHAPTER THREE

comes established in gardens. The peat bed is the ideal spot for it, for this
species is tricky and resents disturbance. It will need to be raised from seed
as with all the members of this section, and at an early stage the estab-
lished seedlings should be positioned between the blocks where they will
settle and eventually form a congested clump of overwintering buds that
resemble golf balls. In spring these erupt to produce attractive foliage and
umbels of pendent cream-coloured flowers with a pink flush, very special
indeed. Fairly closely related is the Nepalese species P. stuartii., found in
the Lamjung Himal with distinctively toothed leaves, bold stems, and an
umbel of yellow flowers. As with P. obliqua, it will appreciate the cool
confines of the peat blocks as it is the summer heat that invariably causes
failure with this lovely section of spring-flowering primulas.

Primula obliqua, Barun, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 TEMPERATE ZONE 121

Primula stuartii, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

122 CHAPTER THREE

SECTION MUSCARIOIDES
Although the species of the stctionMuscarioides are often short-lived, one
or two have made great impact in horticulture and merit a place in the
peat garden. They all are easily raised from seed and should be planted in
the spring in groups of five to seven to create some impact. They form
deciduous, leafless, tiny, green overwintering buds often just below the
soil surface, opening up in late spring to early summer with 6- to 9-in.

Primula muscarioides, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 123

(15- to 23-cm) stems carrying a clustered head or spike of flowers that

are generally sweetly fragrant. Most of the species are distributed within
the provinces of China, but many are also to be found from Sikkim east-
ward through Bhutan and south-eastern Tibet. Although not strictly Hi-
malayan in the truest sense of the term, some of the Sino-Himalayan spe-
cies provide useful summer colour in the peat garden. The type species,
Primula muscarioides, is found most commonly in Yunnan growing in
moist alpine meadows. The impressive deep purplish-blue blooms are
formed as deflexed flowers in a spike. A favourite species of mine from
the same province of Yunnan is the more diminutive P. pinnatifida, which
does well in a cool position, ideally situated in the peat bed. Typically
hairy foliage with shorter 3- to 6-in. (8- to 15-cm) stems bear a flared
blue to mauve-pink boss of fragrant flowers.
One of the longest established members of the section and most strik-
ing of all primulas is Primula vialii from Yunnan and south-western Sich-
uan. Often growing in damp meadows, it was introduced into gardens by
George Forrest under the name P. littoniana. But it formerly had been
discovered by Abbe Delavay and described as P. vialii. In the peat garden
it will take centre stage in July when it is utterly compelling with its soft
lilac, red-topped spikes held on 12- to 18-in. (30- to 46-cm) stems like
Chinese pagodas. After flowering and the spikes have turned golden
brown, the stems may be cut and stored in paper bags, where the seed
capsules will further ripen to be ready for winter sowing. Removing the
fruiting stems will leave the plant with some vigour for several years of
flowering, but the green resting buds are apt to be lifted out of the peaty
soil by the frost and remain very susceptible to rotting. It is therefore
helpful to cover the whole planting area of this primula with a generous
supply of dry larch needles or peat and anchor this down with branches.
The whole lot can be removed in the spring whereupon the buds will
break forth into growth very late in May to repeat the flowering cycle.

SECTION SOLDANELLOIDES
The close affiliation between the sections Soldanelloides and Muscarioides
gives a very clear indication of the development of the migration of the
Primula species within this area of the Sino-Himalaya, the epicentre for
124 CHAPTER THREE

the original movement of Primula. Yet how fascinating it is to observe

the physical lines of demarcation built into each botanical section,
preventing a disorderly, chaotic mish-mash amongst these lovely plants in
this part of the world. Intra-sectional hybrids are known in horticulture
but they are generally weak and short-lived. Such a hybrid arose during
my time at Edrom Nurseries when an intermediate formed between P. vi-
alii andP.flaccida.
The section Soldanelloides is more of an alpine group, more specialised,
and the species very often grow in alpine turf or on moss-covered rocks.
The inflorescence may be spicate or capitate but is generally made up of
one or more nodding bell-shaped flowers. The powerful fragrance is
prominent, and all may be easily raised from seed. The species are found
from Kashmir through Nepal, south-eastern Tibet and western China.
Due to their natural habitat, they should be protected from extremes of
temperature in both summer and winter, and the overwintering buds
must be kept dry during the winter months. Apart from these caution-
ary words they are amongst the finest of all plants for the peat bed, de-
manding the special care such aristocrats deserve.
An easy and robust plant from north-western Yunnan and south-west-
ern Sichuan growing in open pine forests and rocky pastures is Primula
flaccida, formerly P. nutans. This superb species was introduced by George
Forrest in 1914, and I believe it has not been reintroduced since, rather
surprisingly given its distribution. The spike-like inflorescence gives it the
close affinity to species of the section Muscarioides, yet here is a plant with
wide-open flowers of a delicate lavender-blue emitting a heavenly fra-
grance. With qualities such as these, they belong in a bold grouping at
the base of the peat walls, amongst a few dwarf rhododendrons.
If Primula flaccida is a special plant, the next is of crowning glory.
Primula reidii var. williamsii was found and collected in central Nepal in
a confined area of Dhaulagiri. The 1954 expedition, led by Williams and
including Stainton and Sykes, was sponsored by the Royal Horticultural
Society and the British Museum. For many gardeners this primula was
the finest introduction from the whole expedition. In nature it grows in
the shade of overhanging rocks in evergreen oak forests or in clearings, a
diversity of habitat which might explain how amenable the plant has
 TEMPERATE ZONE 125

proved to be in cultivation. Tuck young plants on top of and between the

peat blocks in vertical positions and allow them to establish themselves,
seeding wherever they choose. The perfect simplicity of the flowers
makes them so endearing. From a rosette of hairy leaves the scapes rise
4—6 in. (10-15 cm) carrying up to eight nodding flowers. The bell-
shaped corolla is ice-blue with varying degrees of white towards the base,
and the inside is coated with a heavy dusting of white farina. As if the
flowers were not enough, they fill the air with the most exquisite fra-
grance of musk, notably in the evening hours when they attract night-
flying moths to bring about pollination. The type species, P. reidii, is gen-

Primula reidii var. williamsii, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
126 CHAPTER THREE

erally found farther west in the Himalaya and closely resembles P. reidii
var. williamsii but displays purest white flowers. Although this species is
amongst the easiest of the section Soldanelloides I would be prepared to
cover the plants in the winter with a pane of glass or similar clear rigid
material to protect the overwintering buds from extreme wet. Further
members of this section and their propagation are discussed in relation to
troughs in Chapter 5.

SECTION CAPITATAE
The type species of this section, Primula cafitata, enjoys a wide distribu-
tion from eastern Nepal, through Sikkim, Bhutan, south-eastern Tibet
and into Yunnan. Although a distinct species, it varies considerably in
form. A very lovely plant it is, making a bold stand in the peat garden with
its summer colour. The plants form deciduous clumps of generally heav-
ily farinose, or meal-covered, foliage, and during the summer months 9-
to 12-in. (23- to 30-cm) stems each carry a tight, disc-like head of fra-
grant deep blue to violet flowers. The plants are not long-lived but set
plenty of seed for propagation.
Closely related is Primulaglomerata from central and eastern Nepal,
Sikkim and south-eastern Tibet. This species in its true form can be eas-
ily identified, though it bears a close resemblance to P. capitata. Primula
glomemta, holds its head of flowers in a vertical or nodding position, but
P. capitata generally holds its flowers in a horizontal position. Also the
foliage ofP.glomemta shows little of the farinose characteristic that is so
evident in the type species. Both are fine plants to have in bold groups.

SECTION FARINOSAE
Two species of this section, both within the subsection Auriculatae
(Oreophlomis]^ should thrive in the peat bed. As with most primulas, suffi-
cient light is essential from winter through to spring, with shade coming
only from adjacent deciduous cover. A well-known species is Primula
darkei, from a very localised area around Poosiana in Kashmir. It was first
found by Clarke in 1876, but all plants now grown presumably originate
from seed sent from Kashmir in 1935. This creeping, mat-forming plant
has very small orbicular foliage. Flowers, often borne singly on the short-
 TEMPERATE ZONE 127

est of stems, have a deep, carmine-pink corolla with a white centre. A

splendid sight it is to enjoy a neat clump studded with the pink flowers in
early spring. The one selection I am familiar with in cultivation is shy to
set seed, which means careful division should be carried out every two or
three years for established clumps. Divide whilst the plant is in full
growth in a damp spell during June. It is very important never to lift and
handle plants when they are under stress, but at any time if they have
been ravaged by the infamous little horror of vine weevil, lift the clumps,
wash them clean, divide them into little plantlets, and then carefully place
them into a seed tray of coarse, washed river sand. The plants will gener-
ate new roots, and once acclimatised they can be replaced into the peat
garden. Dividing sad-looking specimens and planting them into a peaty
mix will generally spell a gradual rotting of the basal stems.
The second, lesser-known species in the subsection is Primula elliptic^.,
also found in the north-western Himalaya. It has been much-admired by
trekkers to the Indian Rohtang Pass where it is often found near the melt-
ing snow on hilly slopes and in the shade of boulders. As its name sug-
gests the toothed foliage is elliptical with a one-sided umbel of two to
seven violet- to mauve-coloured flowers with a golden eye. This species

Primula, darkei, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

128 CHAPTER THREE

is very attractive and is just beginning to gain the attention it strongly de-
serves. It will become available in due course from seed collections, and
I can strongly recommend a search for this fine plant.

SECTION SIKKIMENSIS
Some readers may be taken aback to find this section included as most of
the species will clearly be too bold, strong-growing and out of place in

Primula sikkimensis var. hopeana, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 TEMPERATE ZONE 129

the peat garden. One species, though, which I would always include in
the peat garden is Primula ioessa. To my knowledge it has never been rein-
troduced since Ludlow and Sherrif's momentous collection from the
Tsari district of south-eastern Tibet in 1938. It is a truly wonderful mem-
ber of this section displaying typical umbels of two to eight flowers rang-

Primula ioessa, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

130 CHAPTER THREE

ing in colour from pinkish mauve to violet and rarely white with a dis-
tinct blackish calyx. The nodding flowers produced in early summer are
beautifully fragrant as are those of P. ioessa var. subpinnatifida which I re-
member growing in lovely patches in the Schachen Garden above
Garmisch Partenkirchen, an affiliate of the Munich Botanic Garden. In
this variety the scapes are shorter, 6-9 in. (15-23 cm), and the flowers
are a pleasing cream colour. Both will settle nicely into a moist pocket in
the peat garden and can be propagated either by division of the clumps or
from seed.

Primula ioessa var. subpinnatifida, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 TEMPERATE ZONE 131

SECTION CANDELABRA (Proliferae]

Three of these species have a stature that places them in ideal company
with Primula ioessa and a few species ofMeconopsis, which I will mention
following the primulas.
My concern is growing rapidly, as I am sure the reader's is too, as the
selection of plants for our modest peat garden extends towards a dimen-
sion that may involve some careful decision-making. The decision-mak-
ing requires even more care when a husband and wife with differing
tastes arrive at the nursery preparing to purchase a selection of plants. I
have many fond memories of trying to act as an impartial referee as vari-
ous points of view were put forward to promote one particular plant over
another. What a relief that we are not all cloned with the same tastes and
outlook on life.
Reintroduced in the 1990s from north-western Yunnan by the excel-
lent trip to Chungtien sponsored by the Royal Botanic Garden in Edin-
burgh (with collection numbers prefixed by C.L.D.) is Primula serratifo-
lia, first introduced by Forrest in 1905. It is well established in horticul-
ture where it shows a clear link with the section Sikkimensis. It produces
semi- evergreen foliage and on 12-in. (30-cm) stems just one whorl, in
my experience, of large, yellow, bell-shaped flowers with a distinct central
orange bar on each petal lobe. This feature makes it a very attractive spe-
cies. It is easily raised from seed. Another distinct member of this ever-
popular section is P. prenantha which shows no signs of wanting to be
typical of its relatives. Native to eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and
south-eastern Tibet this species is found amongst open, damp clearings
in coniferous forest in the lower alpine zone. I am attracted to the ele-
gance of this plant, dwarf in stature, seldom exceeding 9 in. (23 cm) in
height, with an evergreen rosette and one, rarely two, whorls of four to
eight nodding, brilliant yellow, bell-shaped flowers with a distinct red
calyx. I hesitate to say that this species is easy to propagate from seed for
I have found that the very small seed grains, by comparison to those of
the other species within this section, are best sown fresh to ensure suc-
cess. Division of the clumps seems best in early spring, prior to the first
surge of growth.
My final choice amongst the candelabras would be Primula cockburni-
132 CHAPTER THREE

ana, confined to the wet alpine meadows of south-western Sichuan and

introduced by Wilson in 1905. My experience suggests that this plant is
shorter lived than most of its close relatives but sets an inordinate amount
of seed given its meagre stature. I suspect that in nature it may tend to
be close to biennial, certainly it is at its best in the second year and war-
rants regular replenishment. The gardener's work is well rewarded with
a fine show from the slender mealy stems which bear up to three whorls
of up to eight glowing, orange-scarlet, flat-faced flowers. The species can-
not be confused with any of its orange-flowered relatives, but it has been
parent to some fine hybrids. It merits a prominent planting in an open
bed in the peat garden. Plants from this section enjoy an extra provision
of moisture during the growing season.

SECTION CORTUSOIDES
This section is generally a group of stoloniferous or creeping perennials
found in the forest zone. These are attractive species seldom offered in
the trade. Two I recommend are the widespread Primulageraniifolia and
the recently introduced P. palmata, brought back in the 1990s by Peter
Cox from Sichuan. Both are ideal subjects to tuck between the peat
blocks where they will run freely with attractively divided leaves and
abundant drooping umbels of rose-purple flowers.

SECTION PETIOLARES (Craibia)

I wrote about the celebrated section Petiolares earlier in this chapter, rec-
ommending several species for the woodland garden. The peat garden
also is a fine place to plant a variety of its species. A few species do not
appreciate any disturbance once established and can generally be propa-
gated satisfactorily from seed. Remember to sow the seed of the petio-
larid species just after collecting it.
Primula calderiana subsp. strumosa is one of the most lovely of this
group. Once classified as a species of its own, it has been sunk to
subspecific rank under the umbrella of P. calderiana by the respected bot-
anist Richards. I have no doubt that he is quite correct to draw this con-
clusion, strengthened by the observation made by Ludlow and SherrifFat
Waitang, central Bhutan, in June 1949. Sherriff reported in his diary on
 TEMPERATE ZONE 133

16 July 1949, "One day we marched in a north-westerly direction to the

Monk Karchung La on the main Himalayan range and were quite certain
we would meet up with P. calderiana once again as we could detect its
'fishy3 smell up wind for at least 100 yards distant. Greatly to our surprise
we were greeted not with masses of the purple P. calderiana but masses of

Primula calderiana, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

134 CHAPTER THREE

Primula calderitma, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 TEMPERATE ZONE 135

the rich yellow P. strumosa which I realised had exactly the same odour as
the purple one. At Pangotang and halfway between the two stations at
Waitang there was a whole host of hybrids; powder-blue, violet, cream
and the rest" (Fletcher 1975). So I am happily willing to bow to Rich-
ards's conclusion—how useful such field notes can prove to be. In the

Primula calderiana subsp. strumosa, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
136 CHAPTER THREE

peat garden either the purple P. calderiana or its yellow subspecies, P.

calderiana subsp. strumosa., will make a fine stand with strong 9- to 12-
in. (23- to 30-cm) scapes carrying an umbel of six to twelve flowers. I
hope that the close relatives of P. calderiana will be reintroduced, includ-
ing P. tsariensis and P.griffithii., which have but a tenuous hold in cultiva-
tion at present.

Alongside the glorious genus Primula it seems appropriate to cover a

very closely related and equally sensational genus: Omphalogramma., a
name which in English means "marked navel." I think for the ugliness of
the name alone I would prefer the genus to be merged with Primula., but
there we are. A number of species within this genus occasionally make
their way into the nursery trade, and I cannot recommend too highly
planting them between the peat blocks. At no time should these plants
be exposed to extremes of temperature. Tucked into the blocks, the solid
overwintering crowns will receive just the protection they need, and dur-
ing hot spells in the summer they can draw on the cooler temperatures at
the base of the blocks of peat. Writing about the genus Omphalqgmmma,
I am overwhelmingly reminded of that outstanding garden, Cluny, near
Aberfeldy in Perthshire, Scotland. Laid out by the late Bobby Masterton
and continued by one of his daughters and her husband, Wendy and
John Mattingley, the conditions there are ideally suited to Himalayan
plants. Enjoying extra humidity above the river Tay and a rich, moist,
leafy soil, the situation is one to which few of us are privileged, and it is
home to some fine stands of Omphalogramma.
Three species currently available with a little bit of a search are Ompha-
kgramma minus, O. vincaeflorum and O. elwesianum, each bearing some
resemblance in flower to the fine purple blooms of Gloxinia. All the spe-
cies carry solitary, hanging, tubular flowers on short stems, except in O.
vincaeflorum the stems may well reach 9-12 in. (23-30 cm). The sole
means of propagation is by seed which, like the section Cuneifolia of
Primula, is made up of curiously winged seeds which generally take as
long as three to five years to grow and flower. Though this time period
may strike readers as a negative trait, the plants of this species are proba-
 TEMPERATE ZONE 137

bly the longest living of all hardy members of the Primulaceae. Clearly
this is a group of plants for the seasoned gardener, but they will amply
repay the efforts of those who can track them down and give them a place
in the peat garden.
Not surprisingly the genus Meconopsis offers a few specialised species
which will associate admirably with both the primulas and a number of
liliaceous species described earlier. One of the finest species must be the
monocarpic M. integrifolia with a wide distribution from eastern and
south-eastern Tibet through Gansu, Sichuan and to north-western Yun-
nan. It is generally found in the higher mountains, most often seen in
meadows amongst dwarf rhododendrons. Clearly it is a majestic plant in
nature, standing out like a beacon of yellow and aptly named by Regi-
nald Farrer the "lampshade poppy." I have met several individuals who
have shared the privilege of encountering this spectacular species in na-
ture and they all speak of its unmistakable grandeur—yet it is a plant that
we can all enjoy in the peat garden.
Ludlow, Sherriff and Sir George Taylor were in south-eastern Tibet in
June of 1938. They decided to leave the main range for a time and to
cross to the other bank of the Tsangpo to the drier ranges behind the per-
sistent monsoon screen, whence Kingdon Ward had reported such a rich
flora in 1924-25. They found many exciting primulas, yet the spectacle
of them was as nothing compared to that which greeted the plant hunters
as they emerged from the mixed Abies and Rhododendron forest: "Our
hearts gave a leap at the prospect before us; the rolling moorland was a
billowy sea of dwarf rhododendrons and other shrubs. Spires of yellow
poppy flowers [Meconopsis integrifolia] pierced this matting and all about
were colonies of the sky- blue Meconopsis simplicifolia. Our admiration of
the scene was unbounded and we pitched our tents on a broad exposed
ridge in the midst of this glorious alpine garden about 200 feet [61 m]
below the Sang La" (Taylor 1947). No other locality, except the neigh-
bouring Nyima La, excelled nor indeed approached the Sang La for vari-
ety and profusion of Meconopsis.
What a joy that Taylor accompanied Ludlow and Sherriff on this trip—
he was the foremost authority on Meconopsis and later wrote the botani-
138 CHAPTER THREE

cal monograph on the genus. His words have had an impact on horti-
culture and explain a view we may adopt regardingM. integrifolia and its
close relative M. pseudointegrifolia:
The most conspicuous plant on the moorland was Meconopsis inte-
grifolia whose fountain of yellow flowers rose elegantly through
the carpet of Rhododendron laudandum and Potentillafruticosa var.
grandiflom. At this elevation about 13,000 feet [3970 m], the
plants were up to 4 feet [1.2 m] in height and very monogeneous
[of uniform nature in character]. All had prominent, slender, cylin-
drical styles and the ovaries were densely covered with golden-
brown adpressed hairs. In sheltered pockets of black soil on the
block boulder scree at 15,500 feet [4730 m] another form of
M. integrifolia was found. This plant was barely 2 feet [60 cm] in
height with up to twelve narrow petals and with the style so con-
tracted that it was concealed by the dark brown hairs of the ovary.
Such states have been treated as species by some authors but study
of some hundreds of herbarium and cultivated specimens and
examination in the field show that the forms of this polymorphic
species merge and do not justify taxonomic separation.
The fact is that more than fifty years later a botanical paper has been
published by Grey-Wilson splitting the species into two, Meconopsis inte-
grifolia and M. pseudointegrifolia together with a few subspecies. Late-
twentieth-century discoveries in north-western Yunnan would seem to
support the idea that there is a reasonable botanical distinction between
the two. In M. inteffrifolia the leaves are three veined whereas M.pseu-
dointegrifolia they are pinnately-veined. The rest of Grey-Wilson's prime
characteristics I do not find to hold true, with the exception perhaps of
the more poised flowers of M. pseudointegrifolia. The key to all this is
Taylor's choice of the word "polymorphic," meaning the occurrence of
more than one form of individual in a single species within an inter-
breeding population. If we accept this term in a practical sense we hold
to Taylor's viewpoint. On the other hand, should we see that the plants'
prime characters hold true through subsequent generations in our gar-
den we may question this view. Though I may have belaboured this
 TEMPERATE ZONE 139

point, I feel strongly that most readers are down-to-earth gardeners like
myself and deserve some sort of explanation of what the botanists are
up to. Much botanical work is both helpful and necessary and I applaud

Meconopsis integrifolia, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
I4O CHAPTER THREE

it, but some occasions, and surely this is a prime example, present a need
for balance.
In the peat garden both the. Meconopsis and Primula species do benefit
from a little additional fertiliser which should be applied at planting time.
Remember that peat, where it is the dominant ingredient in the soil, is an
inert material, devoid of the nutrients plants require. The hungrier plants
will benefit from a supplementary fertiliser.
To accompany plants of Meconopsis integrifolia I would look out for
good forms of M. simplicifolia with a distribution from central Nepal
through Sikkim, Bhutan and into south-eastern Tibet. At its best this is
a wonderful species, yet sadly many late-twentieth-century introductions
have been rather disappointing. In its best perennial forms the leaves are
narrow, entire, yet irregularly toothed or shallowly lobed and formed in
a basal rosette. The erect leafless stems may rise up to 2 ft. (60 cm) but are
generally shorter with a solitary, nodding, blue flower. Fine sky-blue-
flowered forms are, sadly, monocarpic, flowering only once.
From the western Himalaya come two closely related monocarpic spe-
cies, both performing well in the peat garden despite growing in scree-
like material in nature. They are Meconopsis latifolia and^kf. aculeate. The
former is endemic to Kashmir and is a bristly, spiny plant in all its parts.
It has distinct basal leaves regularly toothed but not lobed and produces
a spike-like cluster of sky-blue flowers on a stem often in excess of 3 ft.
(90 cm). In cultivation it has been confused with M. aculeata which has
a wider distribution in the western Himalaya, but this second species has
foliage deeply cut and pinnately lobed. The flower formation and colour
are very similar with the two producing fine hybrids in the garden. Pro-
tect young growth from marauding slugs in the spring, and propagate
both by saving seed.
Rarely seen in gardens is the wonderful Meconopsis sherriffii, a pink-
flowering relative of M. integrifolia. It may by polycarpic but generally
dies after flowering. I hope this fine species will one day be reintroduced
from its native Bhutan.
To bring this chapter and the planting of the peat garden to a conclu-
sion, I would like to suggest from amongst the genera Cyananthus., Gen-
ticma and Sorbus a few Himalayan subjects whose late-summer to autumn
 TEMPERATE ZONE 141

colour is their chief attraction. A number of Cyananthus species suit this

situation, while others will do better in a trough or raised bed. The easi-
est to grow is C. lobatus and its many forms whose distribution extends

Meconopsis aculeata,, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
142 CHAPTER THREE

throughout the Himalaya, staining the open hillsides purple-blue in late

August and September. Flowering at the same time in the garden, it is a
mat-forming, herbaceous member of the campanula family, Campanu-
laceae, and responds well to an open sunny position between blocks of
peat or at the corner of the bed where it can tumble down with its myri-
ads of wide open, funnel-shaped flowers. The superb white form C. lo-
batus Albus' will brighten up a corner in the latter part of the year. Flow-
ering a little early in August is the neater-growing C. spathulifolius from
Bhutan, Tibet and north-western Yunnan. An elegant plant with typically

Cyananthus lobatus, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

 TEMPERATE ZONE 143

a sprawling habit, fleshy growth and lemon-yellow flowers in abundance.

This species easily can be raised from seed, yet all species of Cyananthus
can be propagated from cuttings taken from well-established plants in
the early spring when no more than 1 in. (2.5 cm) of growth has been
made. Root the cuttings into a mix with a high proportion of washed
sand, perlite and peat. Once the cuttings have rooted and are established,
pinch out the stem tips to encourage lateral growth and the formation of
a strong overwintering crown prior to the first winter. Being closely re-
lated to campanulas, they are always the favourite diet of slugs, which
must be controlled.
Most autumn-flowering gentians, while enjoying the acid conditions
of a peat garden, require a dedicated bed in full sun with a mineral soil
base. I would though find a place for the wonderful species Genticmct, veit-
chiorum which is found in south-eastern Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan. It

Cyananthus kbatus 'Albus' Inshriach Alpine Nursery, Aviemore JIM JERMYN

144 CHAPTER THREE

commonly grows in somewhat dry meadows compared to its cousin G.

sino-ornata., which nearly always prefers damp, marshy conditions. Gen-
tiana veitchiorum is also reported to have been found in moist slopes and
open woods. With this diversity of habitat one would have thought it
would be quite amenable in gardens, but it is challenging. Likely too
many plants have been started in pots which offers the least likelihood of
success. Halda in his fine monograph of 1996 on gentians gives both
Nepal and a site in the western Himalaya as a westerly distribution, and
if this were the case it may shed further light on the interesting migra-
tion of this group of gentians. This species is generally compact in growth
with broad foliage and a prominent overwintering rosette of leaves. The
flower colour is clearly very variable, although this is apparently not the
case in parts of Yunnan where the flowers are generally of a glowing vio-
let-blue. Fine white forms are sometimes offered, and this species has
been parent to some excellent hybrids. I will discuss these hybrids and
more autumn-flowering gentians in Chapter 4.
And finally, two dwarf rowans of the genus Sorbus will provide some
simple autumn colour in the form of attractive fruits and bright red foli-
age. Sorbus reducta was introduced by Kingdon Ward in 1943 and later
was reintroduced from Yunnan where it forms ground cover around the
Zhongdian Plateau with Nonwcharis aperta growing through it. Generally
suckering without becoming a nuisance the branches grow to 12 in. (30
cm) with large, deep pink fruits and orange-red autumn colour. A closely
related species reported from Tibet and Yunnan is S. poteriifolia, a minia-
ture shrub with dark green, glossy foliage and attractive pink flowers fol-
lowed by reddish purple autumn foliage and white fruits. A fine all-round
dwarf shrub for the peat garden.
The rich choice of both Himalayan and Sino-Himalayan species cur-
rently available in horticulture and suitable for inclusion in the peat gar-
den should make apparent that the peat garden is an ideal feature to ac-
company or even substitute for the woodland in the modern garden. My
experience and observation of established peat gardens—at such fine hor-
ticultural establishments as the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, In-
verewe Gardens and Jack Drake's Nursery—leave no doubt that the scope
is unlimited for creating interesting texture, outlines and colours for all
 TEMPERATE ZONE 145

tastes, with appeal at all times of the year. It is important to keep in mind
the nutrition, most notably, of herbaceous subjects, to keep certain eri-
caceous subjects from spreading too far, and to take care before the win-
ter to clear freshly fallen leaves away from plants positioned close to de-
ciduous trees. Considering the aftercare and attention to detail that any
specialised garden feature demands, the peat garden should play a valu-
able part in the Himalayan garden.
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 CHAPTER FOUR

Subalpfne Zone

VERYONE WHO has ever walked or trekked through mountains,

E any mountains anywhere, must know that special feeling that

grips the spirit upon emerging from a forest or thicket of bam-
boo and strolling out into open meadow. Here is freedom, a complete
change in flora and fragrances, and a new dimension with the high
mountains ahead and perhaps grazing animals nearby. This is the sub-
alpine zone, which in the Himalaya covers elevations between 8000 and
13,000 ft. (2440-3970 m). From here emanate many of the most pop-
ular Himalayan plants and many that have made a profound impact in
horticulture. At lower elevations, some of these plants have found a
home in the bog garden, while others are better suited to a rock garden
or raised bed. This chapter covers each of these features, plus a final part
devoted to the autumn-flowering gentians.
Attempting to replicate in the garden the conditions of a Himalayan
subalpine meadow is bound to require a variety of situations. The subal-
pine region contains many differing conditions in which plants grow, con-
ditions which become clearer through an understanding of the particular
part of the Himalaya to which each plant is endemic. For example, the
point at which the tree-line gives way to a meadow flora varies from west
to east. In the western Himalaya this may occur at around 12,000 ft.
(3660m), while in the east it is considerably higher at 13,000ft. (3970m).

147
148 CHAPTER FOUR

Spring in Kashmir with Primula rosea and Adonis cbrysocyathus DIETER SCHACHT
 SUBALPINE ZONE 149

Because of such particularities, I will take each genus and suggest the ideal
situation in the garden. For example, I may recommend that species found
in stable scree conditions well above the subalpine zone be planted in the
peat garden. Indeed the similarities abound between the flora of this
meadow zone and the truly alpine one, to be covered in the next chapter.
In late July in central Nepal and at around 9800 ft. (2990 m) in the
Marsyandi Valley, a trekker struck with that feeling of spaciousness looks
with a keen eye across the dry, heavily-grazed meadows and can see the
species remaining, clearly those unpalatable to grazing animals. Amongst
the many exciting species encountered here is a classic Himalayan alpine
plant, Stdlem chamaejasme., rarely seen in gardens due in part, I guess, to
the common misconception that choice or special plants are difficult to
grow. I say in part, because this lovely member of the daphne family,
Thymelaeaceae, is an example of a subject requiring great care and skill to
effect a successful introduction. From deep taproots, bold clumps of sim-
ple stems up to 2 ft. (60 cm) are capped by a dense head of wonderfully
fragrant, daphne-like flowers, red in bud, opening white. As with many
Himalayan species the process of flowering, fertilisation, ripening and

Stellem chctmaejasme, central Nepal GEORGE SMITH

I5O CHAPTER FOUR

Typical scene during monsoon with Pedicularis longiflom var. tubiformis, Langtang,
central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT
 SUBALPINE ZONE 15!

subsequent seed dispersal is alarmingly quick, surely none more so than

S. chamaejasme, making seed collection extremely challenging. A friend
who led an expedition to Yunnan in the late 1990s emphasised this phe-
nomenon when locating the same species in its yellow-flowering variety
S. chamaejasme var. chrysantha, noting that within a few weeks of flower-
ing the seed was not only ripe but actually germinating in the head of the
flower. Clearly, in a situation such as this the cautious collector needs to
avail him- or herself of a jar with damp tissue and place the seed, at what-
ever stage it has reached, carefully on the moist bed of tissue and look
after it accordingly. My experience of this eastern form is a satisfactory
one, having planted seedlings into a well-drained raised bed in full sun
where the deep taproots can seek out a heavy loam into which they can
anchor themselves. I have no doubt that the type species found com-
monly in central Nepal will grow quite happily in the same conditions.
The key with so many of these meadow plants is that while they must
not dry out in the severe heat of the summer, their roots should equally
not sit in water, notably as they expect to enter dormancy in early autumn
and not emerge until May.
In these introductory words on the subalpine zone and rich meadow
habitats, I advise adapting the plants of this habitat in the main to a rock
garden or a raised bed. So involved is the concept of constructing a gen-
uine rock garden, that I recommend such a feature only for those who have
the time, skill and care to ensure the often demanding maintenance. At the
same time, a garden can have no finer aspect than a well-constructed, nat-
ural rock feature with a watercourse and pond. A rock garden with a nat-
ural look conjures up the words of the father of rock-gardening, Reginald
Farrer, who wrote in The English Rock Garden, "to make a thing look 'nat-
ural' is by no means to imitate nature. Nature often looks more artificial
than the worst forms of art. By making a rock garden look natural, then,
we merely mean that it must have a firm and effortless harmony of hill or
vale, cliff or slope. Conventionally 'natural' effects are best un-aimed at—
rock gardening, like all arts, is not imitative, but selective and adaptive."
The advantage of a rock garden, however many or few rocks feature in
the landscape, is the immediate provision of a cool, north-facing block of
stone which so many Himalayan subjects will appreciate, not to mention
152 CHAPTER FOUR

the cool root run afforded by sunken rocks. The goal is to create a habi-
tat for plants which appreciate, generally, maximum light, a cool root run
and supplementary moisture during the growing season. The last re-
quirement is for readers who garden in hot, dry areas or regions subject
to little in the way of mean annual rainfall. Someone gardening on the
west coast of Scotland or under Snowdonia in northern Wales will con-
struct raised beds with more than the average proportion of drainage ma-
terial. Here the annual rainfall is high, comparable with the Himalayan
monsoon, together with the greatest asset of high summer humidity in a
cooler climate. In this situation the surplus precipitation must drain
away, whereas in the south-east of England the grower tries to retain
moisture, having to supplement the natural rainfall and create artificially
cooler aspects to compensate for the high summer temperatures.
In the Himalaya, plant hunters and trekkers rejoice at breaking out
into meadows, screes and the higher alpine flora, but the challenge of
growing these spectacular plants becomes ever greater the higher we
climb. Each of these plants has adapted to the highly specialised condi-
tions in which it grows, and at a certain stage we must look down at a
group of plants, set up our tripod and camera, record the unique experi-
ence and leave it at that, because trying to re-enact these conditions at
home would be impossible. Thankfully from the subalpine zone, most
of the species can be grown quite satisfactorily in most gardens, with
some care.
The ideal compromise for a full-blooded rock garden in a small to av-
erage-sized space is to construct a modestly sized raised bed. It could be
designed to a height of perhaps 2 to 3 ft. (60-90 cm) and a width of up
to 6 ft. (1.8 m) to allow, in the case of an island bed, ease of weeding
from either side. Such an island bed could be a practical option to enable
ease of handling for a disabled gardener. Raised beds can be situated in
full sun or on the cooler, leeside of a wall to suit the choice of plants for
such an aspect. The beauty of such a construction, whatever the situa-
tion, is the unique facility of acute drainage and the provision of low
walls over which a variety of plants can tumble down to show off their
trailing stems of flowers. By positioning a few well-placed rocks within
the bed a number of cool corners and pockets can be created for species
 SUBALPINE ZONE 153

requiring the more delicate site that a north-facing rock can provide. The
reader may well begin to object in the knowledge that such a freely
drained bed, situated in full sun, will surely dry out, causing fleshy plants
to expire without a fair chance. I hasten to add that at the time of con-
struction I would always incorporate porous piping through the full
stretch of raised bed, so that when the pipe is operational the seepage will
run through to the needy roots. This method of irrigation is operational
at very low pressure and uses very little water.
When it comes to the construction of a raised bed, the actual raising
can be facilitated by means of stone, built in the form of a low wall, or
possibly hardwood timber. I am personally drawn towards the practical-
ities of using wooden railway sleepers unless appropriate rock is avail-
able to construct dry stone walling. By whatever means the bed is con-
structed, remember that the walls are retaining a significant weight of
soil behind them—the construction must be well built to allow for this
weight. The soil constituents should ensure that both good drainage and
moisture retention are considered. Install at least 6 in. (15 cm) of stones
or similar drainage material at the bottom of the bed and cover with a 4-
to 6-in. (10- to 15-cm) layer of humus in the form of very well-rotted
manure that can be rubbed through a 1-in. (2.5-cm) sieve or a shredder.
For the rest of the bed choose a soil type that is predominantly a good
medium loam of neutral pH mixed with sphagnum peat and gritty sand:
three parts by volume loam, one part peat and one part gritty sand. The
porous-pipe for irrigation can be laid the full length of the bed at a sen-
sible depth of about 6 to 9 in. (15-23 cm) below the soil surface, so as
not to interfere with planting and maintenance, and some 6 in. (15 cm)
from the wall. The open end of the pipe to which a V^-in. (1-cm) hose
will be connected should be exposed by a few inches to allow for ease of
connection without damaging plants. Firm the soil infill close to the
walls, but avoid over compression, and fill the bed to a level higher than
the walls to allow for several inches of sinkage. This is the time to place a
few well-chosen rocks and stepping stones which will enable ease of
planting and maintenance for wide beds.
While planting I generally have a bucket of fertiliser at hand to incor-
porate a light dusting into each hole. The fertiliser should be made up of
154 CHAPTER FOUR

all the required plant nutrients, though the available nitrogen, or nitrate
level, should be relatively low so as not to promote too much vegetative
growth. Our aim is to encourage strong, robust growth, particularly the
root growth, to give the plant the best chance of coming through the
first winter. A higher phosophate level will promote this aim. Each coun-
try offers its own brand names of garden fertilisers. In the United King-
dom, in terms of these three primary ingredients, I recommend two fer-
tilisers: Vitax Q4 (5.3 N, 7.5 P, 10 K) or Enmag (5 N, 19 P, 10 K, plus
7.5 magnesium [Mg]). Both brands are currently available throughout
the United Kingdom from recognised agricultural merchants.
Once the raised bed has been planted, carefully avoiding overcrowding
at all cost, the plants should be well watered in from above. Following a
short period of about a week for settlement, a top-dressing, or mulch, of
pea-sized grit appropriate to the stone walls or in keeping with the look
of the environment, can be applied to a depth of at least l/2 in. (1 cm).
The plants mentioned in this chapter will enjoy the environment of a
raised bed or rock garden. In the main they will prefer an open sunny as-
pect, but I will mention, where appropriate, subjects which prefer a
cooler position, possibly on the north side of a rock.
It is fascinating to note the variation in growth habit exhibited by cer-
tain plants in the artificial garden situation, depending on the amount of
light they are given. This may seem a rather arbitrary comment, yet in
my experience it sheds light on one of the chief differences between long-
term success or abject failure of many Himalayan subjects in the garden.
Often significant plant growth and health can be enjoyed by offering a
measure of shade to compromise for the cooler conditions provided in
their natural habitat. Now, if the garden is positioned geographically so
as to be able to grow the same plants in an open aspect together with a
cool root run, then the species in question may assume a new appear-
ance. The lax, softer growth in the shady site gives way to a more robust,
compact and harder-looking plant. This open position may well provide
the conditions for such a subject to survive a longer period and produce
good-quality seed for propagation. A few genera that would respond in
this way rapidly come to mind: Anemone., Cremanthodium., Incarvillea and
Gentiana.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 155

I hope that mentioning this significant variation in situation and the

resulting growth habits will show readers the options available. But I also
must stress that for these plants from the subalpine zone of the Hima-
laya, constant attention to detail will be required for their success in the
garden. An astute watering regime managed and maintained through-
out the growing season is perhaps the most significant detail.

The Raised Bed and Rock Garden

The arrival of spring will bring early signs of activity amongst deciduous
clumps of Anemone. In Chapter 3 I mentioned a number of species suit-
able for the peat garden, yet in an open, sunny aspect the same plants will
thrive and present a more robust characteristic. Whilst travelling in cen-
tral Bhutan, Sherriff noted the extraordinary abundance of anemones on
21 May 1937: "On our return journey we soon met with a most lovely
anemone, Anemone obtusiloba. It flowers both blue-violet and white, but
looks as if it might come true from seed. I have never seen such a sight of
anemones. For 100 yards or more the grassy hillside was thick with them,
all jumbled together, a patch of blue, then joined on to a patch of white,
and so on, a really beautiful sight. They were probably growing so pro-
fusely where the ground is rich with yak manure" (Fletcher 1975).
Few of us can provide a bed with yak manure, but a sunny, well-
drained aspect we surely can. A variety of forms of Anemone obtusiloba,
including the blueA. obtusiloba var.patula and A. obtusiloba var. sulphured
with its lovely lemon-yellow flowers, will provide valuable spring colour
together with a regular supply of flowers throughout the season. A few
weeks later to flower is the Sino-Himalayan A. trullifolia. Where space
provides I would plant bold stands of this variable species in the rock gar-
den, with drifts of individual colour forms flowing down like a moun-
tain stream. The white form of Anemone trullifolia, as mentioned earlier,
will predominate from seed when planted together with the blue vari-
ant, but it lends itself well to a large drift together with Meconopsis hor-
ridula and incarvilleas.
Plant association is very important in a rock garden if the landscape is
to be more than a fine collection of plants. Consider the following mar-
156 CHAPTER FOUR

riage of species in a multi-partner format. The lovely evergreen shrub

Daphne retusa provides height and form to accompany lower stands of
the blue Anemone trullifolia., while several clumps of Roy Lancaster's
early-flowering form of lncarvillea mairei (L. 2004) with its shrill, red-
dish-purple flowers add further colour to the scene.
Superior forms of familiar species observed in the field will continue
to whet the appetites of keen plantsfolk. One such example is the well-
known white-flowered Himalayan Anemone demissa, which to the casual
observer looks like a large-flowered form of the European.4. narcissiflom.
But Ron McBeath, along with others who have explored the Marsyandi
Valley in central Nepal, noted a superb form of this meadow species with
a pale pink central band. The flowers are held in clusters on branched
stems some 2 ft. (60 cm) in height. Clearly a fine introduction to be
looked forward to in the rock garden.
An accommodating anemone making an occasional appearance in the
nursery trade is Anemone polyanthes, often found in central Nepal. This
species grows in clumps with up to six flowers of a stunning red to mauve
held in umbels on 12- to 18-in. (30- to 46-cm) stems. In its best red forms,
this is a superb subject for either the rock garden or raised bed, flowering
in late spring.
Readers should know that many of the anemones, members of the
buttercup family, Ranunculaceae, can be readily raised from seed, yet the
seed carries a short period of viability. Keen growers may find that their
favourite species becomes more frequently available from seed-collect-
ing expeditions, those either privately sponsored or activated by the lar-
ger botanic gardens. With care the seeds of such genera as Anemone and
Ranunculus can be stored in damp tissue in specialised containers. From
a packet of a dozen seeds or more, it may be that only two or three will
germinate. This should be seen, in the wider context, as a success, with
the seedlings brought on to planting being a satisfactory start to cultiva-
tion and from which a fine crop of seeds should develop in subsequent
years.
A final choice from this rewarding genus would be the widespread
Anemone rupicola, often found in screes or in rocky outcrops in the
meadow zone. This species must be grown in a lean mixture of soil, one
 SUBALPINE ZONE 157

low in available nutrients, notably nitrates, in order to encourage an

abundance of the huge, solitary, pure white flowers which grow on 6- to
9-in. (15- to 23-cm) stems above attractive three-lobed leaves. I have ex-

Anemone rupicola, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

158 CHAPTER FOUR

perienced a lack of flowers and plenty of growth from too rich a soil mix-
ture and thus recommend positioning the plants between rocks in an
open, sunny aspect. This species displays a different pattern of fruiting
with the typical achenes, or seeds, held in a globular, white, woolly head.
I consider my two favourite Himalayan columbines, Aquikgia nivalis
and A. fragrcms, as challenging, with the rock garden or raised bed an
ideal home for them. Both are to be found across the western Himalaya,
notably in Kashmir and north-western India. Aquilegia nivcdis is fre-
quently found at altitudes from 9000 to 13,000 ft. (2750-3970 m),
flowering between June and August. The foliage is very attractive and
suggests an affinity to Pamquilegia,, being divided into broad kidney-
shaped, three-lobed leaflets. The flowers on 3- to 6-in. (8- to 15-cm)
stems are stunning, solitary and deep-purple with almost blackish pur-
ple inner petals and short incurved spurs. In my view this species is a con-
tender for the most beautiful Himalayan alpine. There is a case for tuck-
ing the taprooted plants between rocks in a cooler position without
denying them light. I have found that they may take several years to
flower, but the sight is well worth waiting for. As with all columbines,
they may be propagated easily from seed. The best results come from
sowing immediately after collection in a loam-based seed compost.
The second species, Aquikgiafragrcmsis taller growing, up to 2 ft. (60
cm) in height. A generous planting of this species in the rock garden
would associate well with the flowers of Anemone trullifolia in its blue
form. The lovely white to lemon-yellow flowers are pleasantly fragrant
as the name suggests and several in number.
Belonging to the same family are two members of the genus Delphin-
ium, D. cashmerianum and D. viscosum. Both are delightful plants worthy
of a position in the rock garden. Delphinium cashmerianum, as its name
suggests, is generally found in the western Himalaya at altitudes between
8800 and 14,000 ft. (2680-4270 m) in alpine meadows. It will form
bold clumps of deeply lobed foliage and attractive purple-blue flowers
on stems up to 9 in. (23 cm). The second species is less frequently en-
countered but quite distinct, with its greenish yellow flowers. Distrib-
uted from central Nepal to south-eastern Tibet this exciting plant is again
found on alpine slopes. The flowers are held in a cluster on 6- to 9-in.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 159

(15- to 23-cm) stems over attractively lobed leaves. Both species enjoy a
sunny aspect flowering in late spring and may be propagated from seed
sown soon after collection.
Although closely related, the members of Trollius are more easily
grown than the delphiniums and deserve a place in any sunny rock gar-
den that is not liable to dry out. The species T. aca-ulis is found across the

Aquilegia nivalis, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

i6o CHAPTER FOUR

Himalaya and into south-western China. Encountered on alpine slopes

and in meadows this showy plant forms compact deciduous clumps of
deeply cut foliage. The large, golden yellow flowers are solitary on 3- to
6-in. (8- to 15-cm) stems and resemble immense flat buttercups sitting
up like saucers. It flowers in early summer and is easily propagated from
seed.

Delphinium cashmerianum, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 SUBALPINE ZONE l6l

Trollius acaulis, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

162 CHAPTER FOUR

The rock garden is the ideal spot for the spreading habit of Bergenia
purpumscens, with its characteristic spring flowers held in nodding ter-
minal clusters, a pleasing purple to rose-pink. In the autumn the hairless
leaves assume vibrant red colours, livening an otherwise potentially dull
corner.
A favourite subject for the raised bed and flowering through late May
and June is the delightful Geranium napuli0erum. This popular cranes-
bill is known more frequently as G.farreri, but it was first discovered by
Delavay in Sichuan, China, and named G. napuli0erum in reference to its
somewhat turnip-like root. The former name therefore stands. It is found
growing in rocky substrate between 13,000 and 14,000 ft. (3970^270
m) where it forms neat clumps of attractively lobed, dark-green, kidney-
shaped leaves. Three or four stems carry the delicate, soft pink flowers
with black anthers. As with most species of Geranium., this one can be
easily propagated by seed, but collecting the seed may prove challeng-
ing. Great care should be taken to judge the best time to cut off the fruit-
ing heads before they curl up and catapult the seeds several feet from the
mother plant. In such instances, practise makes perfect. This geranium
is totally deciduous, so it may be beneficial to mark its position to aid
winter maintenance when no aerial growth is evident.
Another species of Geranium responding well to a position in either
the rock garden or raised bed is G. donianum, found growing widespread
in Nepal. It forms neat clumps, and the blooms on this summer-flower-
ing species are pinkish red on short stems amongst attractively lobed
leaves.
Allium, or ornamental onions, made a huge impact in horticulture in
the late 1900s, and readers may be surprised that a number of species are
native to the Himalaya. It is their late-flowering nature that adds to their
virtues for the rock garden. One of the most exciting plants for consid-
eration is A. wallichii, a tuberous-rooted species with flowers on stems
from 1 to 3 ft. (30-90 cm) in height. The stems are more typically around
18 in. (46 cm) tall with a lax, spherical head of crimson to dark purple
flowers. Another species commonly found in Nepal is A. humile, flower-
ing early in the garden and through late spring to early summer. Its
white, star-shaped flowers are produced on short 4- to 6-in. (10- to 15-
 SUBALPINE ZONE 163

cm) stems in the form of a lax umbel and, as with other white-flowering
plants, benefit strongly from positioning amongst darker foliage subjects.
The stems of this allium would happily pop up between the sprawling
branches of Salix calyculata or S. hylematica.
It is not surprising that within the genus Allium, comprising some
700 or so species of onion found worldwide, confusion arises amongst
some of the species. I suspect that a close link lies between the fairly wide-
spreadvl. sikkimensis andA. beesicmum, which is more frequently found in
western China. Both are highly desirable garden plants and will provide
valuable summer colour in the raised bed. Allium sikkimensis., given its
taller stature, merits a bold planting in the rock garden where it will attain
12- to 18-in. (30- to 46-cm) stems with nodding umbels of pale blue
flowers. From a horticultural point of view, A. beesianum is of immense
importance, easily cultivated, flowering from mid- to late summer and
easily propagated from seed. Sadly all too often British nurseries describe
it in their catalogues, and then the plant they send turns out to be the dis-
tinct A. cyaneum, also a late-flowering, blue-flowered species, but not
with bell-shaped flowers. The true A. beesianum is found fairly wide-
spread in north-western Yunnan, south-western Sichuan and south-east-
ern Tibet where it grows in open, alpine meadows at altitudes between
10,500 and 14,000 ft. (3200-4270 m). It was first introduced from the
Lichiang range in Yunnan by George Forrest in 1910 and eventually re-
ceived a justified Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society
in 1981. When strong it will grow up to 12 in. (30 cm) in height with the
most lovely sky-blue, nodding bells, each with a darker stripe along the
center of the perianth segment. An albino form is also available. This out-
standing allium can be propagated from seed, or superior forms may be
divided as they come into growth in the spring.
The genus Inccirvillea is of immense horticultural importance. So gar-
den worthy and exotic in nature are the incarvilleas that they simply have
to be given space in either the rock garden or a raised bed. I must em-
phasise how important it is, with the species under discussion here, that
they all be given a position in full light and a soil that is freely drained
and humus rich. The genus consists qf eighteen species with a distribu-
tion from eastern Afghanistan through to north-western China. Their
164 CHAPTER FOUR

centre of migration clearly belongs to western China notably around

north-western Yunnan. Christopher Grey-Wilson published a revision of
the genus in 1998, and it is a thorough, clearly defined and practical work
that I as a horticulturist find highly satisfactory. It does, though, leave
the gardener with a few new names and alterations to cope with. In the
1990s several expeditions to western China, notably to Yunnan, opened
a new window of opportunity, introducing a number of species from this
sensational genus.
The broader geographic boundaries I have set out for this book will
allow me to highlight a few species of lncarvillea distributed within the
provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan. But first consider the one truly Hi-
malayan species, I. himalayensis. This is a newly described species incor-
porating certain forms formerly of 7. mairei. It is distributed from west-
ern Nepal, notably in the Barbung Sama, to northern Bhutan and
southern Tibet, around the Nyoto Sama, at altitudes of 11,400 to 14,700
ft. (3480-4480 m). All the known sites for this species are located signifi-
cantly in the drier regions to the north of the main Himalayan divide, in
the rain shadow of the Indian monsoon that moves from Dolpo, Nepal,
across to south-eastern Tibet. This habitat gives a clear indicator as to the
plant's needs in the garden, for it simply resents too much winter wet and
enjoys a good summer baking, a scenario that will appeal to gardeners in
the dryer regions of both the United States and Europe. The species is
perfectly at home on a raised bed filled with a high proportion of loam
along with gritty sand and peat to retain moisture.
It is perhaps the exotic flowers that provide the greatest appeal within
this genus, an&Incarvillea himalayensis offers some of the finest flowers of
all. In this variable species the gloxinia-like flowers are reddish pink, with
a white throat and two white flares at the base of each corolla lobe. The
flowers may attain some 3 in. (8 cm) across and are represented at their
best in two well-known cultivars, /. himalayensis 'Nyoto Sama' and 'Frank
Ludlow'. The cultivar 'Nyoto Sama' was raised from a seed collection in
south-eastern Tibet at a locality of the same name by Ludlow, Sherriff
and Elliot (L.S.E. 15614). Ludlow's diary of 3 June 1947 describes the
native habitat: "Pride of place mus.t go to the Incarvittea mairei [now hi-
malayensis] which at 12,000 feet [3660 m] plastered the rock faces and
 SUBALPINE ZONE 165

the stony hilltops with its flat rosettes of dark green pinnate leaves and
with its great gloxinia-like reddish-pink, white striped flowers sometimes
3 inches [8 cm] in diameter" (Fletcher 1975). Today, more than fifty
years later, this cultivar remains quite distinct, generally flowering on a
stem up to 6 in. (15 cm) high, and can easily be raised from seed. After
flowering the long angular capsule up to 3 in. (8 cm) in length will ma-
ture from a greenish, black-spotted colour to a uniform brown and begin
to open up. At this stage the fruiting capsules should be cut off and placed
in a carefully marked paper bag and hung up to dry. The capsules can be
prised open in the autumn, September or October, to reveal the sub-
stantial, flat and winged seeds which should be sown in a loam-based
seed compost and placed in a cold frame. The seedlings should be trans-
planted in the normal way into a loam-based potting compost and in a
matter of a month a little tuber will form. Whilst in growth they should
be well watered. Flowering may well take place within three years from
sowing. I would not recommend disturbing the established tubers as
they certainly do not respond well to division at any time.
The cultivar Incarpillea himalayensis 'Frank Ludlow3 is quite wonder-
ful. It is almost stemless at flowering. This cultivar was raised from a seed
collection made in northern Bhutan by Ludlow, Sherriff and Hicks
(L.S.H. 17250) in September 1949. Seed-raised material grown in cul-
tivation shows little in the way of variation and clearly demonstrates the
stability of this fine cultivar.
Other species which are widely available in horticulture, that will grow
well in a raised bed, are Incarpillea zhongdianensis and I. mairei. Each of
these species is distinct botanically, as Grey-Wilson's paper demonstrates,
but gardeners will find some of the differences less apparent. I do agree
with the latest clarification within the genus, but any changes made to
familiar names can take a while to sink in, as many nurseries, either stub-
bornly or unwittingly, hold to their former labels. Again, the main cen-
tre of diversity within the genus is the Sino-Himalayan region within
Yunnan and Sichuan. Incarpillea zhongdianensis was introduced in the late
1990s from the Zhongdian Plateau in north-western Yunnan. It grows
on dry grassy hillsides and occasionally in rocky places, flowering in May
and June. This species is now well established in horticulture and prov-
166 CHAPTER FOUR

ing a wonderful introduction, producing solid, herbaceous clumps of

pinnate foliage. The nature of the leaves is what makes this species so dis-
tinct, with five to nine pairs of lateral leaflets. The flowers, typically held
on stems about 12 in. (30 cm) high, are deep magenta with a yellow
throat and two white, oblong flares at the base of each corolla lobe. In
the garden, as with all incarvilleas, the time of flowering is early June on-
wards, and this species also can be easily propagated by seed.
Incarvillea mairei is widely grown with its shrill carmine-pink flowers.
And mention must be made of a lovely soft-pink-flowering form known
in the trade as I. mairei Tink Form'. A great complement to the type spe-
cies, it is well worth looking out for.
A genus becoming better known due to some fine new introductions
is Cyananthus. This member of the campanula family is of immense im-
portance amongst Himalayan introductions, with a number of species
widely available in the horticultural trade. Although most of them are
easily grown and blue-flowered, a few exciting species have yellow flow-

Incarvillea mairei, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

 SUBALPINE ZONE 167

ers. I always feel rewarded to find plants that lend themselves to plant-
ing at the edge of a raised bed where their spreading stems can flow down
over the walls. Although many Cyananthus species are found competing
with grasses amongst meadow flora, they seem quite at home on a raised
bed. Perhaps the greatest difficulty facing gardeners is the apparent con-
fusion surrounding the naming of the species, particularly amongst the
Sino-Himalayan introductions of the late 1990s. No doubt botanists will
soon turn their attention to this wonderful genus and thus help garden-
ers choose from a mass of plants that includes clearly more than the dis-
tinct species.
The late-flowering habit of the genus is of great benefit. Cyananthus
lobatus is the best-known and most widely available species. In nature it
occupies the alpine turf amongst dwarf rhododendrons throughout the
Himalaya. From the thick, fleshy taproot rise many stems which radiate
out to form neat, leafy mats. In August and September the mats become
masses of large, blue, funnel-shaped flowers which terminate each trail-
ing stem. Its succession of flowers makes this species valuable, and several
cultivars add to the range of shades of blue as well as the clean, pure white
C. lobatus Albus'.
Flowering in late summer and into the autumn is a welcome new-
comer collected in Yunnan. Cyananthus spathulifolius (C.L.D. 1492) is
now well established in horticulture and merits a position on the raised
bed where it will form a tidy mat of neat foliage with marked reddish
stems. The lemon-yellow flowers are produced in profusion, typically
campanulate, terminating each shoot. Propagation is by means of seed
or soft cuttings taken in the spring. After flowering, a bladder-like capsule
containing the seed can be collected and stored in a paper bag until the
seed is ready for cleaning and sowing at the beginning of the new year.
During the winter when we spend time tidying up the raised bed, we
can carefully pull away the now decaying top growth of cyananthus to
reveal a mass of tiny overwintering shoots nestling amongst the top-
dressing of grit. As spring advances with added warmth, they will begin
to sprout, and when about 1 in. (2.5 cm) of growth has been made, care-
fully sever several cuttings from the perimeter of the clump. Use a sharply
pointed pair of scissors for the purpose. Some harmless, sappy milk will
168 CHAPTER FOUR

exude from the stems. Immediately insert the cuttings into a seed tray
containing a mix of three parts by volume damp perlite to one part
washed, gritty sand. Firm the mix and water in the cuttings, then cover
them with a tent of polythene and inspect them every few days to ensure
they never dry out or lack humidity. They should root within three to
four weeks, then carefully transfer them to a less humid atmosphere
under gentle shade. A weak liquid feed can be given now until the rooted
cuttings are ready for potting. Once the new plants are established in the
pots pinch out the main terminal shoots to promote a strong overwin-
tering crown.
The species of Cyananthus most often encountered in horticulture
after C. lobatus is the distinct, mat-forming C. microphyllus., widely dis-
tributed from the Indian Uttar Pradesh, through Nepal and into south-
eastern Tibet. In nature it flowers from August to October depending
on altitude and the return of winter snows. It is frequently found on
open slopes or amongst rocks at elevations up to 15,700 ft. (4790 m)
where it forms stout rootstocks producing many branched and trailing
leafy stems, each bearing a lilac-blue, funnel-shaped flower. This species
produces seed and may be easily propagated from cuttings. I strongly
recommend planting it at the perimeter of the raised bed where the trail-
ing, leafy stems radiate out from a flat mat of glaucous foliage and, over
a long period from August onwards, provide a mass of pale-blue flowers
falling over the edge of the bed.
Similar to the foregoing yet clearly distinct due to at least two impor-
tant features is Cyananthus sherriffii. Firstly, in early spring the new
growth is covered with silvery hairs which differentiate this species from
its less hirsute cousin. Secondly, C. sherriffii is not as easily cultivated and
prefers to be tucked between rocks or positioned in a vertical crevice to
combat extreme winter wet. These two features give evidence of its nat-
ural preference for dryer conditions, yet this lovely species has never
failed to grow for me in either a trough or a raised bed. The flowers are
tubular, bearded in the throat and the most lovely pale blue in colour. Al-
together it is a rather fine plant and can be propagated by soft cuttings
taken in the same way as described earlier.
In September 1936 whilst concluding a Tibetan expedition, Ludlow
 SUBALPINE ZONE 169

and SherrifFspent several days in the Bimbi La. There above the trees the
great expanse of grassy hillside was carpeted with the mauve-violet Cy-
ananthus wardii (L.S. 2557). Again in 1998 and 1999 trips were made
into south-eastern Tibet, and the travellers confirm the location of this
species. I hope that in the near future this superb meadow plant, akin to
a more amenable version of C. sherriffii, will be introduced successfully
into cultivation. Similar in habit is C. incanus which enjoys a wide distri-
bution from central Nepal to south-western China. The showy flowers
are blue with long white hairs in the throat.

Cyananthus microphyllus, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

170 CHAPTER FOUR

A genus deserving more attention both in our gardens and in horti-

culture is Dracocephalum, a member of the Labiatae. This genus of aro-
matic, perennial herbs includes a number of Himalayan species that merit
a position on the raised bed or in a rock garden landscape. The descrip-
tive generic name emanates from the Greek words "draco," dragon, and
"cephale," head, aptly depicting the shape of the flowers. Two reasons for
their importance horticulturally are that most dracocephalums flower in
the summer season when colour is so valuable and they are easily grown.
A species found stretching from the western Himalaya into Yunnan is D.
wallichii., surely the most decorative of all. In my experience plants have
formed low, woody shrublets up to 12 in. (30 cm) in height with aroma-
tic, heart-shaped leaves and beautiful, large, pale-blue flowers formed as
whorls in a dense head surrounded by upper leaves. Somewhat more
erect growing with linear leaves is D. forrestii from the Sino-Himalaya
with l-ft.-high (30-cm) spikes of deepest blue flowers. After flowering,
dracocephalums should be cut back to the ground to maintain a neat
habit. Save the seed of these plants for the best means of propagation.
The Himalayan subalpine zone, including the lush meadows, hosts a
number of valuable members of the genus Potentilla. The following few

Cyananthus incanus, Khumbu, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 SUBALPINE ZONE 171

species fit nicely into the more traditional rock garden along with the
practical raised bed.
To mention the name Potentilla nepalensis conjures up the well-known
tall-growing herbaceous plant, P. nepalensis 'Miss Willmott', with its at-
tractive crimson-coloured flowers. From northern Pakistan in the Kara-
koram range a fascinating number of plants are found, many growing in
arid conditions at the most western limits of the Himalaya. On the Sho-
gran Pass amongst a rich flora, Henrik Zetterlund, a member of the
Swedish expedition to this area in 1983, found a very neat-growing form
of the species, P. nepalensis (S.E.P. 249), which was later given the culti-
var name 'Shogran' due to the significant impact it has made in horticul-
ture. From tight overwintering clumps radiate adpressed branches of typ-
ically divided leaves with innumerable flowers of a delicate crimson. The
flowers bloom over a long period from late summer onwards.
A highly variable species of great merit in the rock garden is Potentilla
atrosanpfuinea. It ranges in flower colour from yellow through orange to
outright red. In all its forms the pubescent foliage is a beautiful silvery
colour, sharply toothed, and with flower stems varying in height from 6
to 12 in. (15-30 cm). A fine, early-summer-flowering subject found
widespread throughout Nepal.
Finally for the rock garden, I recommend a useful and rewarding sub-
ject invaluable for its autumn colour, both for its flowers and foliage.
Polygonum vaccinifolium—the genus was formerly Bistorta—is found from
Kashmir through to south-eastern Tibet. Forming trailing mats, this one
must be given space to spread amongst and over rock work. Keep it clear
of the confines of a raised bed. Should it spread further than planned, a
little surgery will resolve the problem. Slender racemes of soft pink
flowers appear in late summer and autumn, and the small leaves assume
lovely red tints in the autumn months.

The Ravine Garden

The ravine garden is a space that combines rock work together with a
water feature. This type of situation is hard to create artificially, but some
gardens may be blessed with a natural watercourse with rocks and pock-
172 CHAPTER FOUR

ets of soil laid on. In no way should this rocky landscape compete with
the traditional bog feature, which is home to a wide variety of plants and
which I will discuss in the next section of this chapter.
The plants from the subalpine meadow zone in the Himalaya all grow
in full light. Some species prefer dry rocky areas, such as Incarvillea, but
others are to be found in damp conditions amongst rocks in pockets of
deep loamy soil. The specialised plants that demand such conditions are
my recommendations for the ravine garden. Our goal is not only to grow
them successfully, but also to allow them to perform in as natural a way
as possible, encouraging such plants to flower in true character.
Surely one of the true Himalayan classics is Rheum nobile, indeed most
aptly named the "nobility" of the rhubarb family, Polygonaceae. The spe-
cies is rare in cultivation, but seed is often made available from seed ex-
peditions and its demanding growing conditions can be met within the
ravine garden. Often growing in screes above the subalpine meadow
zone,R. nobile is widely distributed between 11,800 and 14,700ft. (3600-
4480 m) throughout the eastern Himalaya into Bhutan, Tibet and the
provinces of western China.
The keys to success in cultivation are the provision of good light in
addition to a cool, deep root run into a fairly rich, loamy soil with run-
ning water into which the taproots will penetrate. The several-feet-deep
root run can be achieved by embedding decent-sized boulders—at least
3-ft. (90-cm) blocks—into the soil, providing pockets of soil where the
plants will thrive while their deep taproots find protection by the sides
of the rocks during hot spells.
Seedlings should be pricked out straight into deep pots, once known
as "long toms," and not allowed to dry out during the growing season.
The following spring, young plants should be planted out at least 2 ft.
(60 cm) apart. The plants are totally herbaceous and reappear in late
April, or early May on the east coast of Scotland. The most challenging
part is to bring them to flower. These recommended growing conditions
should ensure that some five to six years in the future, and probably only
once, the typical rhubarb-like, 12-in. (30-cm), red-margined foliage will
provide the base for the most striking, erect stems up to 3 to 4 ft. (0.9-
1.2 m) in height with conical spikes of large, pale cream-coloured,
 SUBALPINE ZONE 173

Rheum nobile, Bimbi La, southern Tibet ANNE CHAMBERS

174 CHAPTER FOUR

rounded, bladder-like bracts concealing the numerous green flowers. As

these stunning bracts decay, a mass of black, triangular seeds, technically
nutlets, are left hanging and ready for collecting, storing and subsequent
sowing at the turn of the year. Should the grower be successful in flow-
ering this outstanding species, he or she will no doubt herald the success
with a loud trumpet blast and, forgetting all rationality, contact appre-
ciative friends to witness the spectacle!
An important genus symbolic of the Himalaya and presenting a chal-
lenge to horticulturists and gardeners is Cremanthodium, belonging to
the composite family, Compositae. The generic name in its Greek origin
suggests "kremao" to hang, and "anthodium," flower-head, referring to
the pendent flower-heads which are reminiscent of miniature sunflowers.
One or two species present few challenges, but in the main, encouraging
seedlings on to flowering has proved difficult. I hope that a project such
as that recommended here will prove to be the very conditions to suit
this lovely genus. I am still trying.
Many of the species will be found within the alpine zone and occupy
the higher stations in scree conditions. I will describe a few which grow
in both subalpine meadow conditions and the alpine zone, where the
roots are able to penetrate into firm soil beneath the rocks. The best way
to obtain material of Cremanthodium is through seed-collecting expedi-
tions to the Himalaya. Store the seed in an airtight container in the re-
frigerator, and sow in the spring as soon as the soil conditions are suit-
able. The seed may be sown in situ, which involves preparing a seed bed
by gently raking a few square feet of soil and sowing the seed singly on
the surface, a few inches apart. Cover the seed with a thin layer of soil
spread through a sieve, then add a further layer of coarse, gritty sand to
stabilise the seed and protect the necks of the germinating seedlings.
Water in well. Though this all may sound a little complicated, these plants
resent root disturbance and therefore should establish more easily
through this method.
An alternative method of raising plants is to sow the seed in a loam-
based seed compost, utilising cellular trays or small 1- to 2-in. (2.5- to
5-cm) pots. Sow the seeds singly, covering them the same way with soil
and gritty sand. Ensure the seed containers remain moist but not wet.
Once germination takes place and the resulting seedlings have estab-
 SUBALPHINE ZONE 175

lished, plant them along with their cells of soil in a prepared bed. This
method obviates the need for pricking out and the inevitable root dis-
turbance which generally causes their death.
The easiest species to grow and one often available in commerce is
Cremanthodium arnicoides., found fairly widespread across the Himalaya
in rich meadows. As with all the species, this one forms a herbaceous
crown of basal leaves producing flowering stems up to 2 ft. (60 cm) with
several nodding, glowing-yellow flower-heads up to 2 in. (5 cm) across.
This species will prove to be the most satisfactory in the garden, thriving
in the cool, rocky habitat with good light.

Cremanthodium arnicoides, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

176 CHAPTER FOUR

A further two species which may require some seeking out are Cre-
manthodium decaisnei and C. reniforme, both found in more stable situa-
tions amongst alpine turf or rock outcrops where the roots are able to
penetrate soil. So stunning are the flowers of these species, every attempt
should be made to locate seed and provide the right home for them. With
C. decaisnei, 4- to 6-in. (10- to 15-cm) stems produce nodding, yellow
flowers with a well-developed calyx of brown overlapping sepals forming
a cone at the back of the flower like some quaint bonnet—surely it is one
of the most exquisite of all Himalayan flowers. Cremctnthodium reniforme.,
as its name suggests, has kidney-shaped leaves and solitary, nodding, yel-
low flowers on 9- to 12-in. (23- to 30-cm) stems.

Cremanthodium reniforme, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 SUBALPINE ZONE 177

The Bog Garden

Clearly the provision of a watercourse offers great possibilities for the
Himalayan garden. What greater bonus could a gardener receive than to
enjoy a natural supply of water running through the garden! In Scotland
we call a stream a "burn." A boggy area, whether it be naturally occurring
or artificially created is often associated with poorly drained soil, possibly
involving a clay or otherwise heavy substrate. But in fact, as long as the
water area is not stagnant and is acid in nature, the site can be developed
to incorporate a wide variety of plants, both woody and herbaceous. The
differences betweeen the ravine and bog gardens may seem minimal.
Both can be naturally occurring. The ravine involves water and a natural
rock outcrop, while the bog is an area that either naturally or by human
intervention provides a source of permanently moist soil.
Of course the taller-growing primulas of the sections Candelabra and
Sikkimensis come to mind for the bog garden. Tastefulness, though, calls
for a variety of plants to flower at various times in the season to enhance
the garden landscape.
At the edge of a burn or around the margins of the bog garden, early-
spring colour can be assured by a mixed planting of Caltha, the marsh
marigold, and a variety of primulas. This is a natural association often ex-
perienced by visitors to the mountains of Kashmir and the western Hi-
malaya. The caltha found in those parts is C. palustris var. himalensis, dis-
playing its typical lush, glossy foliage with bold, terminal clusters of
golden yellow or occasionally white flowers. It will flower in the early
spring in gardens at the same time as the brightly coloured and easily
grown Primula rosea, found abundantly by running water in the western
Himalaya. This primula is easily grown, producing its distinctive lax
umbel of rose-pink to red flowers on 6- to 9-in. (15- to 23-cm) stems. As
with most primulas in the Farinosae section, this one is easily propagated
from seed, but in this case I recommend sowing the seed as soon as it is
collected, to greatly improve germination.
To this association add the bold clumps of Primula denticulata, the
drumstick primula, and there can be no finer sight in the bog garden.
Once again easily grown, it is highly variable, offering a variety of colours
which can be enjoyed in drifts broken up by the yellow flowers of the
178 CHAPTER FOUR

marsh marigolds. To propagate a favourite colour form or named cultivar,

regular division is the simplest method, carried out after flowering or dur-
ing the period of dormancy in the autumn. Saving seed from good colour
forms will not guarantee a further generation of such colours. Shades of
mauve-blue predominate together with good reds and a pure white.
A range of the Sino-Himalayan Iris species will prove rewarding in
such a damp area, associating well with the taller primulas. Try the blue
to purple-flowered Iris species, such as I. bulleyana., which ranges from
pale to deep blue, or I. da-rkei in its dark purple form or I. chrysographes in
purple to black. Of the candelabras, Primula, helodoxa is the supreme
choice with lovely golden yellow flowers. From the section Sikkimensis,
Primula- alpicola in its lemon-yellow form or the type species P. sikkimen-
sis with its fragrant, yellow flowers would provide the ideal contrast be-
side the various hues of purple-blue irises.

Trollius acaulis with Primula rosea, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

 SUBALPINE ZONE 179

One of my favourite herbaceous subjects for the bog garden is the

stately rhubarb from the Sino-Himalaya, Rheum alexandrae, showing its
best in early summer. Commonly found in the mountains of western
China and Tibet, growing in swampy areas often amongst willows, the
plants are made up of rather large, leathery foliage forming bold rosettes.
The inflorescence is handsome, attaining some 3 ft. (90 cm) at best,
forming a solid stem shrouded in creamy-yellow pendent, leaf-like bracts
that hide the flowers. This exciting species may be propagated by seed, or
nutlets, which can be collected as the whole plant begins to decay in the
early autumn. A bold planting of this subject would associate well with
drifts of bog primula such as the superb Primula secundiflora with its nod-
ding umbels of wine-red-coloured flowers, or with the candelabra prim-

Primula rosea, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

i8o CHAPTER FOUR

ulas, including a mixed planting in pastel shades of P. buHeyana in orange,

P. pulveruknta in plum-red and P. chungensis in yellow-orange. A marriage
of these candelabra species will bring about a natural range of hybrids,
producing a lovely blend of pastel colours to make the boggy area a chief
delight during summer months.

Primula denticulata, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

 SUBALPINE ZONE l8l

Primula alpicola withP alpicola var. violacea in the foreground, Schachen Garden,
southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT
182 CHAPTER FOUR

Primula sikkimensis, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 SUBALPINE ZONE 183

Some of the more vigorous blue poppies will grow well in this situa-
tion, whether in full sun or dappled shade. The best ones to choose
would be the vigorous Meconopsis George Sherriff Group along with the
sumptuous turquoise-blue M. xsheldonii. I cannot overlook a personal
favourite, M. quintuplinervia, Farrer's harebell poppy, found in western

Meconopsis xsheldonii, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

184 CHAPTER FOUR

China and Tibet. This is a spreading perennial sending out underground

stolons. It loves a damp situation and produces 6- to 9-in. (15- to 23-
cm) stems, each bearing a pendulous, pale lavender flower. Stately plants
that blend very well with the primulas and meconopses are a number of
Rodgersia species, including the exciting R. pinnata from western China
and R. nepalensis from eastern Nepal. Both form herbaceous clumps with
bold, pinnate foliage and flowering stems up to 3 ft. (90 cm) in height.
The lovely spike-like flowers are in the case of R. pinnata deep pink and
in R. nepalensis creamy white. Rodgersias may be propagated quite satis-
factorily from seed.
To conclude, a subject providing useful colour in the boggy situation
would be an edging or marginal planting of the spreading Polygonum
affine. This species is seen at its best in either of the superior forms P. affine
'Donald Lowndes' or 'Darjeeling Red', both spreading into wide mats.
The pale-pink to reddish flowers are borne on a cylindrical spike in the
late summer, lasting well into the autumn when the foliage assumes su-
perb reddish tints.

Autumn-Flowering Gentians
Readers may be surprised to learn that many popular autumn-flowering
gentians, notably Gentiana sino-ornata occupy distinctly marshy condi-
tions in nature. Their preference for open, damp meadow conditions
brings me to devote this section to these sensational plants. But compil-
ing this section has presented a serious challenge, for the many Himala-
yan and Sino-Himalayan gentians with horticultural merit and garden
worthiness make it difficult to choose which species and cultivars to plant
in the garden.
Of the 360 species of Gentiana recorded in science, some 248 species
are native to China, giving a clear picture as to the source of the genus
and from where they originally migrated. For such a large and valuable
genus a comprehensive classification was needed early on, to bring about
some botanical order. So it was that in 1894 the Russian botanist Kus-
nezow undertook a major work on the genus, although at that time few
of the many Chinese species were known to him or science.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 185

In subsequent years several botanists have worked on Gentiana, no-

tably Marquand in 1937, but the definitive work now available was pub-
lished in 1995 by the Science Press of Beijing in Flora of China. This is a
thorough and absolutely comprehensive work that covers most of the
species of all the genera relevant to this title. To be truly specific about geo-
graphic boundaries, relatively few species of Genticma are found in the
Himalayan massif. Yet, by comparison to the massive horticultural im-
portance of gentians in the Sino-Himalayan context, I make no apolo-
gies for "widening the net."
The taxonomic classification of Gentiana, in order to cope with the
tremendous diversity within the genus, defines a number of sections
which bring together species according to their scientific makeup. The
five sections that cover plants from the Sino-Himalaya are Kudoa.,
Frigida, Pneumonanthe, Phyllocalyx and Isomeria. This chapter highlight-
ing the subalpine meadow zone concerns species from the section Kudoa.
The following paragraphs discuss their impact in horticulture together
with the hybridisation that has taken place, and of course their successful
cultivation in the garden. The other sections will be covered in Chapter
5 as we rise higher in altitude to the alpine zone. Most of the subjects
discussed here present few challenges to the gardener, but the truly alpine
species will test the skills of the cultivator.
The one single species of Gentiana that has made the greatest impact
in horticulture during the twentieth century is G. sino-ornata, first col-
lected by Forrest in north-western Yunnan in 1904. What is so extraor-
dinary about this notable introduction is its persistence in horticulture
for nearly a century. This length of time is significant because so many
gardens in which this species grows simply cannot provide the ideal con-
ditions, thus endangering its survival. But survive it has, setting very lit-
tle seed over the years due to its late flowering in September and October,
giving the fertilised ovary little time to ripen before the decaying trum-
pets fill up with rain water and rot away.
Not until 1991 and the highly successful expedition to Yunnan, car-
ried out in part by the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, was this spe-
cies re-collected and brought back to gardens. Of great interest, both hor-
ticulturally and to science, is that the resulting material (the collection
186 CHAPTER FOUR

numbers carry the prefix C.L.D.) displayed a fundamentally different

habit to Forrest's collection. The C.L.D. collections show a marked
stoloniferous habit with slender growth, while Forrest's original mater-
ial is of a more compact nature, making it more desirable as a potted
plant in the nursery trade.
Gentiana sino-ornata is found in Sichuan and north-western Yunnan
and forms a central rosette from which radiate many spreading stolons
which root at the nodes. The stolons measure typically up to 8 in. (20
cm) in length. The narrow leaves are in pairs and form a tube around the
stem, making a pleasant carpeting effect. At the end of each stolon the
solitary flowers are borne in the form of striking trumpets beautifully
striped on the outside. The colour varies immensely in nature, but For-
rest's form still rightly forms a benchmark with which new material can
be compared—his original introduction is a glorious royal blue. The spe-
cies offers a white form, G. sino-ornata var. alba, and one of the newer in-

Gentiana sino-ornata, Yunnan, China DAVID MILLWARD

 SUBALPINE ZONE 187

troductions with a strong stoloniferous habit is G. sino-ornata (C.L.D.

476b) with slate-white flowers and brown markings on the outside.
The typical habitat for this species in China is wet meadows or river
banks and alpine meadows. It clearly prefers a lime-free, moisture-reten-
tive bed in an open aspect. To create a bed for this gentian and its relatives
is really a simple matter, provided the garden is not subject to a blatantly
alkaline, or limy, or overly hot and dry aspect. I recommend creating a
bed of any suitable proportion, possibly an island bed of uneven shape ei-
ther on a gentle slope or on the level. The position should allow full ex-
posure to light. If the natural soil is neutral to acid this is an ideal basis
from which to work. If on the other hand the pH is slightly alkaline it
may be practical to import an acid soil and excavate to a sufficient depth,
say to 18 in. (46 cm), and replace the soil, adding a generous amount of
sphagnum peat. This is a worthless excercise if the natural soil is very alka-
line, or chalky, as the chalk will leach back into the supplementary mate-
rial, or if the water supply is highly alkaline. Gentians are not great feed-
ers, which makes it inadvisable to add fertilisers to the soil. If the soil is
particularly impoverished, however, apply at planting a little general fer-
tiliser with low available nitrates and some extra magnesium, such as
Enmag in the United Kingdom, which includes 5 N, 19 P, 10 K, 7.5 Mg.
To enhance the display of autumn gentians, which are predominantly
blue, I recommend incorporating a few woody specimens in the form of
slow-growing trees and shrubs to balance the autumn display. Although
not necessarily of Himalayan origin, a specimen of the sweet gum,
Liquidamber styraciflua 'Worplesdon', will form a tree with maple-like fo-
liage and superb autumn colour. Other smaller shrubs suitable in a mod-
est-sized bed would be Fothergilla major or Enkiantbus cernuus f. rubens,
both displaying wonderful autumnal tints.
The gentians are widely available from specialist nurseries and are best
planted in late spring to allow a full season for them to establish. Inevi-
tably most normal people will be moved to purchase gentians in the au-
tumn when they are in flower. This is not the best time to plant them in
the garden as they will not establish a root system prior to the coming
winter. By all means purchase the plants in flower but retain them in their
pots, keeping them well watered until the foliage turns brown. The plants
188 CHAPTER FOUR

will overwinter outside quite satisfactorily, being ready for planting as

the weather allows the following spring. The more vigorous species and
hybrids should be planted with enough space to spread out. The ideal
planting distance is some 9-12 in. (23-30 cm) apart. A careful mix of
both species and hybrids planted together in bold groups will create a
display of colour commencing, typical of a Scottish climate, in early Au-
gust right through to early November.
It is very important in the first growing season, from May through to
late July, that the newly established plants do not dry out. Water the gen-
tians infrequently but thoroughly, ensuring that the plants are soaked ei-
ther early in the day or last thing at night. Frequent damping down in a
half-hearted approach will simply encourage the young plants to send
out feeder roots near the surface, thus failing to produce strong anchor-
ing roots. This kind of development will result in inevitable death if the
watering suddenly ceases in a hot dry spell.
After flowering, the gentians will not need deadheading, unless the
gardener plans to save seed, which is an easy operation. After pollination
and fertilisation, the ovary, or seed capsule, extends out of the decaying
trumpet, exposing itself to enable successful dispersal of seed. As the cap-
sules turn brown and begin to open slightly they can be detached and
placed into a paper bag to dry out. Once dry, they are ready for cleaning
and sowing at the turn of the year in an acid loam-based seed compost.
In late March or early April, all the previous season's growth can be
pulled away from the central rosette and discarded, allowing the new
growth to proceed. This is a good time to weed the bed thoroughly and
top-dress with a thin layer of sphagnum peat. After three to five years of
growth the gentians will need to be lifted and divided at this time in early
spring, just as the plants are breaking out of dormancy. Lift each of the fat
clumps and remove any excess soil, carefully keeping the varieties sepa-
rate. Simply loosen the clumps gently and the thong-like roots will fall
apart. It is important to grade them out on a bench retaining only the
plants with strong and healthy roots. Plant the very best quality ones back
into the bed with some fresh soil, rotted compost and peat. The plants of
secondary quality can be given away or potted up in an acid potting com-
post to await future planting. Water in the fresh planting thoroughly. Ex-
 SUBALPINE ZONE l8p

perience will show which species and varieties are more vigorous, some
needing more frequent division and others rarely bulking up at all. If
beds are neglected, though, the quality of flowering will recede and
plants will become impoverished and eventually die.
An exciting aspect of this section Kudoa ofGentiana is that beginning
with just some seven species, and a rational number of cultivars, the yield
results in a great range of blues and some lovely pure whites, thus creat-
ing a magnificent display—perhaps one of the highlights in the Himala-
yan garden. A magnificent plant becoming bettet understood with late
1990s exploration of north-western Yunnan is Gentiana veitchiorum. This
is a highly variable species found over a wide area including north-west-
ern Yunnan, south-eastern Tibet, Gansu and Bhutan. This is a distinct
plant often rhizomatous in habit and therefore proving less generous
from division. Its more compact habit is endearing in the garden, with a
typical basal rosette and much broader leaves than G. sino-ornata. I have
observed that the material available in horticulture, including the now
rather tired specimens of G. veitchiorum (L.S. 13321), have a marked ten-
dency to branching, a desirable asset when searching for free-flowering,
compact hybrids with a deep blue flower. These characteristics also show
up in the G. Ystevenqgensis hybrids such as 'Frank Barker3, the outstanding
'David Tuckwell' and 'Shot Silk3.
In north-western Yunnan Ron McBeath found Genticma veitchiorum
growing in alpine meadows, turf banks and amongst open scrub, in stark
contrast to the marsh situations of G. sino-ornata. He noted that the flow-
ers varied little, being almost always a deep violet-blue. This rather con-
stant flower seems to hold true in cultivated forms from this area. In
other regions, including river banks and alpine meadows, the habitat of
the species is more versatile, showing great variation in flower colour and
form. The species was first discovered in 1915 by Wilson in Sichuan, his
expedition sponsored by the well-known firm, Veitch, hence the specific
name. Certainly more will be learned of this superb species as plant ex-
ploration continues, but it has already made a great impact in horticul-
ture and deserves to be sought out by keen plantsfolk.
With a thoroughly confused scientific history comes the glorious spe-
cies Gentiana lawrencei, known to most gardeners as G.farreri. The thor-
I9O CHAPTER FOUR

ough Flora of China identifies two varieties, firstly G. lawrencei var. lawren-
cei; they note the distribution as south-western Gansu, Qinghai and wes-
tern Sichuan, mentioning correctly that it was first described from a gar-
den plant grown from seed collected by Brocheral in 1905 near Lake
Baikal in Mongolia. The second variety recognised by the Flora of China
is G. lawencei vwc.farreri., found in alpine meadows also from south-west-
ern Gansu, Qinghai and western Sichuan. The botanical difference be-
tween the two varieties is stated to be the length of the calyx lobes, the
long whiskers situated behind the flower, which are much longer in G.
lawrencei var.farreri. My personal feeling, based on my own experience of
it in cultivation and on accounts from those who have been privileged to
encounter the plant in nature, is that G.farreri is a variable species stretch-
ing over a very wide distribution with a possible diminutive form in
Mongolia. It is apparently very common on the Tibetan Plateau and re-
ports from Ludlow and Sherriff suggest that another form is to be found
around Lhasa.
To that great alpinist Reginald Farrer, a Yorkshireman of true character,
I must now turn for a flavour of the intense excitement to be derived upon
first seeing Gentiana lawrencei vax.farreri. On a trip in 1914 to the Da-
Tang mountain in northern Gansu Farrer wrote, "In the fine turf that
crowned the top of a sloping boulder there stared at me a new gentian, a
gentian that obliterates all others of its race. I gave tongue for Bill [Pur-
dom] and, together, in reverent silence, we contemplated that marvel of
luminous loveliness" (1919). Farrer described it as having "a subtle swell
to the chalice, that is streaked outside in heavy lines of black and purple
that divide long Vandykes of dim periwinkle blue, with panels of Nankeen
buff between: inside, the tube and throat are white but the mouth and the
bold fingers are so luminous and intense a light azure that one blossom
of it will blaze out at you among the grass on the other side of the valley.
It literally burns in the alpine turf like an electric jewel, an incandescent
turquoise." Farrer collected seed of this fine form displaying Cambridge-
blue-coloured flowers. The seed germinated at the Royal Botanic Garden
in Edinburgh, and flowering plants were sent on to Farrer in 1916. What
great joy this brought him and deservedly so. He was to die of illness when
still a young man while on a botanical trip to China in 1920.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 191

I can share a little of his joy as I still grow material related to the orig-
inal introduction, carefully selected from seed. One interesting, rarely
mentioned fact about this variety is that along with several other well-
known plants from the mountains of the Sino-Himalaya, it can tolerate
a significant amount of magnesium limestone, or dolomite, in the soil
and indeed seems to thrive with some added dolomite incorporated into
an acid soil. This does not mean that such plants will thrive in dry, chalky
soils. It is this rather significant fact that I believe may have helped to
maintain this wonderful plant in cultivation for so many years. While I
was doing my apprenticeship under Will Ingwersen in Sussex in 1971, a
consignment of plants arrived at the nursery from Joe Elliot, another
great plantsman who ran an inspirational establishment in the Cots-
wolds. The endemic soil at Elliot's nursery was of course Cotswold lime-
stone and he told me that the only autumn-flowering gentian he could
grow was Gentmna lawrencei var.farreri. So fine were the flowers on his

Gentiana lawrencei vax.farreri, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

Ip2 CHAPTER FOUR

plants when delivered to the Sussex nursery that my eyes were fixed on
them, so Ingwersen gave me one when I left my assignment with him. I
have never lost this material nor forgotten its origin and am sure many
other fortunate gardeners still grow this original form which fits exactly
Farrer's rather poetic description.
Gentiana Imvrencei vax.farreri grows very well in a cool yet open bed or
trough with added dolomite, and in my experience is not as happy in a
peaty bed as the other Gentiana species, although still appreciating plenty
of moisture during the growing season. One of the first plants to flower
at the beginning of August, the variety is of more lax habit than other
species with leaves a bright green in colour, long and narrow and dis-
tinctly recurved. The long calyx lobes are a strong characteristic, but both
in the wild and resulting cultivated seedlings display a variable flower col-
our, from the distinctive Cambridge-blue through to deeper colours. In
its best form this is surely one of the finest species and has been parent to
some of the finest hybrids in cultivation. It may be divided as with the
other species but it has not proved to be so prolific in bulking up, yet
does set plenty of seed. This may be collected and stored and sown as
suggested before. The resulting seedlings will show variation and with a
little experience it will soon become apparent which are the seedlings to
put aside as hybrids for further trial, aiming to retain those of similar
character to maintain some purity and at the same time ensuring renewed
vigour.
This brief description of an outstanding garden plant shows just how
wonderful this hobby of gardening and growing challenging plants is. A
number of horticultural characters have appeared through the genera-
tions and have given so much with their explorations, committing their
experiences to such descriptive prose. Added to these are a number of
celebrated growers who over the years have shared their knowledge and
expertise with keen students like myself, eager to try and piece together
the horticultural jigsaw puzzle. Indeed we owe all those individuals a
great deal, and the best way to show our appreciation is of course to con-
tinue sharing our experiences.
In our modern era this is just what individuals such as Roy Lancaster
have done. He, along with his colleagues in the Sino-British expedition
 SUBALPINE ZONE 193

to Yunnan in 1981, was instrumental in introducing another species of

horticultural merit. Gentiana ternifolia was introduced as G. ternifolia
(S.B.E. 1053), possibly in the form of two separate clones later named
'Cangshan' and 'Dali'. They were collected from the damp meadows of
Dali. This species is extremely prolific, spreading quickly and flowering
freely when given plenty of light. It hybridises freely with its close rela-
tives and is sure to be parent to some lovely compact hybrids in years to
come. It is a great choice for edging a bed, with a compact habit and sky-
blue flowers appearing towards the end of the season in September and
October. With such a vigorous habit it easily bulks up from division, per-
haps as soon as after three seasons.
Two species well worth including in the bed of gentians, while being
less vigorous in habit and quite distinct in flower, are Gentiana hexaphylla
and G. prolata. The former was introduced by Farrer from Gansu in 1914
and has remained in cultivation somewhat precariously until the rein-
troduction by the very successful seed-collecting trip organised by the
Alpine Garden Society to north-western Yunnan in 1994 (having collec-
tion numbers prefixed by A.C.E.). Once again one of the members par-
taking in this trip, Ron McBeath, noted that on the summit pass of the
Beima Shan he and the party were overwhelmed at the short turf full of
G. hexaphylla, (A.C.E. 1692) in full flower. At 13,700 ft. (4180 m) the
well-drained turf would receive ample moisture from the monsoon rains.
The colour varied little, most flowers being pale blue with petals flared
wide open. The foliage of this species is distinct, with grey-green, rather
glaucous leaves in dense whorls of three to seven leaves per node. Often
flowering in August in our eastern Scottish climate, it may serve as an at-
tractive parent to hybrids as it becomes re-established in horticulture. In
1931 A.G. Weeks crossed G.farreri, meaning G. lawrencei var. farreri,
with material from Farcer's introduction of G. hexaphylla producing G.
xhexa-farreri.
Gentiana prolata is another species flowering early in August. It is
most attractive with neat foliage and narrow tubular flowers. It has a
wide distribution, taking in south-eastern Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and
Sikkim. Beer introduced a fine form from eastern Nepal that has persisted
well in gardens, forming a basal rosette and short flowering stems bear-
194 CHAPTER FOUR

ing bright blue, tubular inflorescenses with a marked white throat and
spotting within. This species is easily propagated from seed and will
prove a popular plant in the gentian bed.
Several species introduced in the late 1990s may well become known
to horticulture through the coming years as they begin to filter into the
trade, but it is to the multitude of hybrids that we now turn our atten-
tion.

Gentian Hybrids
Most keen growers of gentians have quickly perceived the plants' will-
ingness to hybridise readily and form exciting new plants with admirable
qualities for the garden. Venturing into hybridising requires little in the
way of scientific training. Just carry out the purpose in an orderly fashion
using a small, soft paint brush to pass the pollen from the male plant to
the chosen female species. Choose a female parent and cut open its large
buds and remove the stamens with a pair of forceps (see figure). The
plant must now be protected or covered to keep off unwanted insects
until the stigmas have recoiled and become receptive. Then apply pollen
from newly dehisced anthers of the chosen male parent. It is important to
tag the pollinated flowers with details of the parentage and date of polli-
nation. After pollination has been carried out hopefully fertilisation will
soon take place. For a few weeks until the capsules begin to ripen, the fe-
male plant should be covered up again with a tent of muslin. This is the
method for the organised hybridist, but nature can also take its course,
and an eager eye can easily pick out a hybrid from a batch of seedlings as
they begin to produce their first set of true leaves. Nature may produce
some of the finest hybrids showing the best constitution—a sharp eye
will spot them. In my experience it is a species of hoverfly, or wasp, that
is the chief natural agent to this process here in Scotland.
I have no intention of giving a comprehensive list of available hybrids.
The many nursery catalogues specialising in autumn-flowering gentians
from the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and the United States
will serve the reader admirably. I mean to present some of the finest that
I have grown and that other gardeners have much admired.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 195

The first serious hybridisation of autumn-flowering gentians com-

menced in Britain around 1930 utilising the few known species available
in horticulture. A number of the early hybrids proved much easier than
the species to cultivate in less amenable growing conditions. One of the
first hybridists was R. H. Macaulay of Lochgilphead, Argyll, Scotland,
who crossed Gentiana, sino-ornata with G. lawrencei vzr.farreri to produce
G. Ymacaulayi. This hybrid proved of immense importance to gardeners
the world over. Of the five or so seedlings Macaulay raised from this
cross, one was chosen and named G. xmacaulayi, and divisions of it and
the others were distributed to his friends, amongst whom was R.D. Trot-
ter of Brin, near Inverness, Scotland, a fine gardener and close friend of
Jack Drake. It was Drake who told me the story of the five or so seed-
lings. Drake recalled visiting Trotter's garden in the autumn of about
196 CHAPTER FOUR

1959, and seeing each of the seedlings in full flower, he felt that apart
from the already named G. xmacaulayi, only one other was an outstand-
ing seedling. Drake was given a clump of the second outstanding one,
and in due course G. xmacaulayi 'Kingfisher' was born. It has proved to
be one of the finest of all our autumn-flowering garden plants. It is very
close to G. sino-ornata} being slightly paler when seen en masse, and
flowers at least a fortnight earlier. The name 'Kingfisher', besides de-
scribing the glorious blue, also highlights the flowers' marked orange an-
thers prior to pollination. Some hybrid seedlings resemble one parent
more closely than the other, and the original G. xmacaulayi resembles G.
lawrencei var.farreri more closely than its other parent. It has proved to
be a vigorous hybrid and may still be in cultivation, though I know of
no nurseries offering it.
A little later, in 1934, Macaulay created the popular hybrid Gentiana
xcarolii from G. lawrencei var. farreri and G. lawrencei. Looking at this hy-
brid, which is still widely grown in gardens today, it looks to me much
more as if the two parents are G. lawrencei var. farreri and G.prolata, but
one must respect the records from the hybridist. It is the first autumn
gentian to flower, often at the end of July. It is a free-flowering hybrid,
neat in habit with narrow tubular flowers, pale turquoise blue in colour.
In my experience this is a sterile hybrid, which sets no seed. This plant
needs division every few years both to rejuvenate and to provide a means
of propagation.
At the same time Macaulay made another pioneering cross using Gen-
tiana veitchiorum and G. sino-ornata., producing the excellent G. xbernar-
dii, later renamed G. xstevenagensis 'Bernardii'. It is another fine compact
grower, flowering later on in September, with dark blue flowers with
purple bands within.
In 1938 W. E. Mackenzie, while a member of staff at the Royal Botanic
Garden in Edinburgh, made an important cross between Gentiana law-
rencei var. farreri and G. veitchiorum, producing one of the most famous,
and in my opinion one of the finest, hybrids, namely G. 'Inverleith'. This
one has the rather spindly habit of G. lawrencei var. farreri but a stunning
flower colour, perhaps the best of all, real Gentian-blue—appearing early
in August. I strongly recommend this cultivar to any grower of these lovely
 SUBALPINE ZONE 197

plants, although it has become rather difficult to obtain in its true form.
One or two cultivars have appeared in the trade as imposters under this
celebrated name, so be careful to check the origin of material under offer.
Two outstanding cultivars which have become rare are Gentiana 'De-
vonhalT and 'Glendevon', both raised by Andrew Harley. The lovely high-
altitude species Gentiana ornata, from Nepal, was utilised in both cases.
(I will describe this species in more detail amongst the gentians discussed
in Chapter 5.) For 'Devonhall', G. ornata was crossed with G. lawrencei
vax.farreri to produce a compact plant with pale blue flowers. 'Glende-
von' involved G. ornata and G. sino-ornata., but the resulting hybrid barely
differs from G. ornata with its neat habit and dumpy, turquoise-blue
flowers.
Having lived for a while in Hertfordshire, a county in the south-east
of England which is relatively dry and often subject to soil of relatively
high pH, I always marvel at the ability of Clarence Elliot (father of Joe El-
liot), who ran an alpine plant nursery in Stevenage, to grow these gen-
tians. His nursery manager, Frank Barker grew some autumn gentians
very well and made a cross between Gentiana sino-ornata and G. veitchio-
rum, producing the compact, late-flowering hybrid called G. ~xstevena-
gensis 'Frank Barker' with lovely dark purple-blue flowers.
These are a few of the pioneer crosses made with the species then
known in cultivation. In the late 1900s many well-known hybridists in
some cases repeated the crosses, perhaps using newly introduced species,
but in the main resulted with already-known cultivars. Clearly as the years
go by the sky is the limit for possibilities open to the modern hybridist.
Garden centres can hardly keep up with the glut of new names, but if
only the majority of the newly named cultivars were worth the names ap-
pended to them. A good all-round modern hybrid needs to have, above
all, a sound constitution to cope with the changing climate. It needs to be
free-flowering, a good clean colour and above all absolutely distinct so
that if you choose to name the hybrid after your daughter, it will live up
to her name and continue as a fine garden plant for a long time.
Some of the finest modern hybrids owe their origin to famous nurs-
eries in Scotland, Wales, Germany and Switzerland, and it would be silly
to start naming them and then sadly miss a few. Surely as I write others
198 CHAPTER FOUR

will have commenced this interesting work of hybridising. The following

are a few of my personal favourites that my gentian bed just could not
do without. The exact origin of some of the finest hybrids is a little ob-
scure, so unless I am absolutely sure, I will not attempt to offer a sug-
gestion as to the parents.
One gentian that must rank as the most free-flowering of all is the dark
blue, multi-headed cultivar Gentians 'David TuckwelT, formerly known
under the invalid name of'Multiflora' (cultivar names should not be La-
tinised). The name commemorates its raiser.
Jack Drake's nursery since about 1950 has been responsible for dis-
seminating many fine gentians. While training there I not only fell in love
with this part of the highlands of Scotland, near to Aviemore, but also
chose my career under the inspiration of the range of plants grown at the
nursery. A distinct cultivar, selected as an Inverleith seedling, was Gen-
tiana 'Susan Jane', named after then-proprietor John Lawson's youngest
daughter. This hybrid has a fine compact habit with beautifully striped,
turquoise-blue trumpets.
George Sturrock who set up a family business specialising in autumn-
flowering gentians for the wholesale market in Angus, Scotland, put a
name to a very fine Devonhall seedling, Gentiana 'Blue Bonnets', again
free-flowering, mid-blue and easily grown. He has raised many fine seed-
lings, two of which I purchased in a mixed bunch. They have proved of
such great quality that I named them while still running Edrom Nurs-
eries and exhibited them at several Royal Horticultural Society shows.
Gentiana 'Soutra' is a pure white, compact-growing plant with dark-
green foliage, sound in habit and easily grown. The other, G. 'Sheryl
Louise', is a vibrant deep-blue-flowering cultivar which I named after my
daughter, who has loved helping at the shows over the years and enjoys
meeting the public at large.
Another fine nursery, established in northern Wales and rising to prom-
inence in the 1990s, is Aberconwy Nursery, run by Keith and Rachel
Lever. Amongst a whole host of cultivars raised by Keith is one which
deserves particular mention. It is Gentiana 'Shot Silk' which is compact in
habit resembling a more free-flowering version of G. ~xstevenagensis 'Frank
Barker', with deep blue flowers with attractive bands of violet blue.
 SUBALPINE ZONE 199

Gentiana 'Blue Bonnets', Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

2OO CHAPTER FOUR

To conclude, I would have to go back in time to a batch of cultivars

raised by Neil Lyle of Maryfield Nursery in Fife, Scotland. His first batch
of hybrids were named in commemoration of Queen Elizabeth's corona-
tion in 1953. Three of these are Gentiana 'Elizabeth', 'Coronation' and
'Edinburgh'. This last is my favourite, compact in habit with stunning
turquoise-blue flowers produced over a long period of time in mid-
autumn.
Gardeners can select and combine their favourite species and hybrids
to give the garden a balanced look, with both vigorous and compact
plants in the bed, giving colour right through August on to the end of
October and the beginning of the frosts. As long as the main require-
ments are adhered to, namely, an open situation, an acid soil and most
importantly the provision of plenty of moisture during the growing sea-
son, the autumn-flowering gentians should give years of pleasure high-
lighting the year-round appeal of the Himalayan garden.
 CHAPTER FIVE

Alpine Zone

T
o REACH any conclusion in a written work suggests approaching
a climax or crescendo, a moment of extreme excitement. This
chapter is no exception, for we have reached the alpine zone, the
height at which the adrenaline levels are surely at their peak. For me, and
for many, having concentrated on the cultivation of these extraordinary
plants without having first-hand knowledge of their location in nature,
the excitement and challenges presented by the different zones might
seem to be represented fairly equally at any altitude, but still something
is special about this true alpine zone. Perhaps it is the knowledge that few
have scaled these heights, some 12,000-16,400 ft. (3660-5000 m), and
seen these specialised plants. Whatever the draw, so many of us crave the
opportunity to try and grow them, whether the natural conditions avail-
able are conducive to their cultivation or not.
Few plant explorers would disagree with the observation that the rich-
est diversity of choice alpines is to be found in a broad band along the
upper edge of the alpine meadows and the base of the extensive screes at
varying altitudes depending on the Himalayan region. Well-known plant
hunter Ron McBeath noted, "It is impossible to describe the excitement
felt when you are labouring your way steadily upwards and come across
first one Primula wigmmiana in perfect flower, then a few, followed by a
hillside dominated by this beautiful species" (1985). In this band or

2OI
2O2 CHAPTER FIVE

zone, so affected by the monsoon, frequent springs are fed by the melt-
ing snows which irrigate the upper meadows and screes, providing con-
ditions that are practically impossible for mortal gardeners to simulate at
low altitude. With this sobering fact in mind I embark on this exciting
chapter.
I have been privileged to know individuals who have shown such gen-
erosity in their willingness to impart time and knowledge, often in the
form of private slide shows, to the point where I have felt almost sure
that part of me was there in the Himalaya with them. The late George
Smith was one such friend who often invited me to stay overnight after
lecturing nearby or when passing through the area. Always, out came the
projector and then hours of sensational slides from a region of Nepal, a
country with which he was so familiar. I most profoundly remember
slides of an extraordinary gentian. First we saw views of the snow-capped
Himalayan peak of Makalu, breathtaking indeed; then the perspective
zoomed in to the glacial screes but showed no plant life; then closer still,
the slides just barely showed some marks of vegetation between the boul-
ders. Finally came the most perfect clumps of gentian, the likes of which
I had never seen before. I asked what they were, and Smith roared with
laughter, almost falling backwards off the chair. That I had no idea of the
answer to my question appealed to him so greatly—I was simply speech-
less. The best was yet to come, for the final slide was a close-up of the
most exquisite, slate-blue urns sitting between the stones of the scree in
all their imperial beauty. It was Genticma urnula, epitomising the chal-
lenges of not only trekking to such heights in east-central Nepal but also
of finding such a wonderful plant and recording the event with lovely
slides. Smith was a master.
Other individuals who have helped and motivated me in a similar fash-
ion are Dieter Schacht under whom I trained at the Munich Botanic Gar-
den; Ron McBeath who has been involved in many expeditions with the
Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh to both Nepal and China; together
with Henry and Margaret Taylor who are superb growers of alpine plants
and have shared their knowledge and experience of many expeditions,
notably to India and the western Himalaya.
Since the 1990s exploration to some parts of the Himalaya has not
 ALPINE ZONE 203

been easy, particularly due to the political unrest in Kashmir and the un-
certainties linked with the borders of China and Tibet. I have been very
thankful and excited to learn of trips carried out in the late 1990s by Peter
Cox, his son Kenneth and my good friend Graham Rugman to this sen-
sitive area in south-eastern Tibet. What a thrill they have experienced re-
turning in the footsteps of Ludlow, Sherriff and Kingdon Ward. It is
surely just a matter of time before we can enjoy growing a few more of
the plants we have only been able to read about, as they make their way
back into cultivation by carefully organised seed collections.
If we are able to obtain plants of the alpine zone from specialist nurs-
eries, friends or seed exchanges we should consider pot culture for the
early stages of their cultivation. Using pot culture is both normal and

Gentiana urnula, Khumbu, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

2O4 CHAPTER FIVE

prudent, yet an extended period of containerisation could well mean the

plants' eventual downfall. This I say with many years of experience in the
nursery trade where due to necessity, container-growing is a routine.
When plants are given day to day care, not only can they survive but also
thrive and produce healthy mother plants while in the pots, provided the
roots are allowed to reach into a free-draining soil.
The best eventual site for these higher alpines may well be the raised
bed or trough. The majority of these species will accept nothing but good
mineral soil of acid to neutral pH. In the exceptional circumstance when
a subject prefers an alkaline soil, a measure of coarse dolomite grit can be
added around the individual plant. Indeed, for such subjects, a dedicated
trough could be prepared with just such a specialised soil.
In the main, plants from this alpine zone will appreciate all the natural
light they can get, and at the same time they must not dry out during
their growing season. In some cases, notably amongst the primulas, the
preferable position for the plants is dappled shade, but at least protect
them from the fiercest early-afternoon heat. However, these are very
much the exception to the rule.
Although I am proposing to highlight some of the most exciting spe-
cies found in this zone throughout the vast Himalaya, readers must re-
alise that many of these plants will only be available with diligent search
through specialist nursery catalogues and annually produced seed lists.
The Appendix lists sources to watch. I can, however, assure readers that
once successful in locating a much sought-after plant and once successful
in cultivating it, they will find the reward unsurpassed even though the
plants may not live long.

The Ranunculaceae
A genus that always has appealed to me personally is Adonis. Most of the
species hail from Europe, but a lovely one is from the western Himalaya.
The species is A. chrysocyathus, found predominantly in Kashmir, and
once located it often is found to be locally common. A member of the
buttercup family, Ranunculaceae, it is early to flower, forming strong,
perennial clumps of deciduous foliage. These plants burst into flower be-
 ALPINE ZONE 2O5

fore the feathery leaves have fully formed. Golden yellow flowers are pro-
duced in profusion on stout 6- to 9-in. (15- to 23-cm) stems. Once es-
tablished the clumps should be left alone and the plants propagated by
seed collected when green, identifiable in achenes, or single-seeded fruits,
with a hooked beak which when ripe will fall away when gently rubbed.
Once collected, the seed should be sown immediately and may take sev-
eral years to germinate. As with other members of this family it is im-
portant not to be too hasty to prick out the seedlings, rather leaving them
in the seed pot to mature for another year, feeding them with a weak,

Adonis chrysocyathus, Zoji-La, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

2O6 CHAPTER FIVE

balanced liquid fertiliser at frequent intervals while they are in full

growth.
Another member of the buttercup family is the wonderful dwarf
monkshood, Aconitum hookeri, found at high levels in alpine turf from
central Nepal through Sikkim into western China at around 13,700 ft.
(4180 m). This is a species well worth seeking out. It requires care to es-
tablish successfully, but once this is achieved will reward with years of
typical eye-catching purple cowls held on 4-in. (10-cm) stems above at-
tractive dark green, dissected leaves. This choice species spreads by un-
derground stolons emanating from tiny little dark-coloured tubers. It
grows admirably in a humus-rich, gritty soil, associating well with a
dwarf vaccinium or similar subject which will allow the stems of the
aconitum to pop up amongst the evergreen foliage, providing both sup-
port and protection at the root for the fragile tubers. These little tubers
are utterly resentful of winter water-logging and often rot when grown
in a pot. The stunning flowers appear in the summer and often provide
a generous amount of seed, which should be collected and sown at once.
The stable screes provide an abundance of exciting plants which re-
quire great care when cultivating them in our own low-altitude gardens.
Notably, such plants found in screes are growing in pockets of accumu-
lated mineral soil into which the plants can establish their roots. Re-
member that in most cases these screes are fed with an almost constant
supply of snow melt, except in the few cases where the area is affected by
a rain shadow and experiences dryer conditions, such as parts of the Ti-
betan Plateau and the Dolpo area in central Nepal. Under our low-alti-
tude conditions, those plants from screes strongly influenced by the
monsoon will simply resent drying out during the growing season. In
most cases, they also will prefer an open sunny aspect, making the whole
project of growing these a plausible challenge.
The high- altitude Delphinium species, closely related to the foregoing
aconitums, love to get their roots down into an open, gritty, mineral soil
and in these conditions may form established, deciduous clumps, thriv-
ing for many years. Sadly it is the gritty element that provides the essen-
tial drainage, which, at the same time, can so easily cause the immediate
drying out. Drying out may lead to death during a protracted spell of hot
 ALPINE ZONE 2O7

dry weather during the growing season when the roots are in search of
moisture. I find it worth belabouring this point to assure readers that
these high Himalayan alpines are not out of reach of cultivation, but suc-
cess is attainable only with care and attention to detail, especially water-
ing when the plants require it.
Delphinium brunonianum is found from the western Himalaya across
to south-eastern Tibet in the alpine turf and stable scree. It is somewhat
variable in flower and can be identified by its strong musky fragrance.
Attractive blue-purple flowers with a woolly appearance are borne in a
dense cluster on stems no more than 8 in. (20 cm) tall over typically lobed
foliage.
A lovely little species I have grown on and off for several decades now
is the Ludlow and Sherriff introduction Delphinium muscosum (L.S.
19375) which will grow well tucked between small rocks in a raised bed.
This species is in no way inhibited when given some extra dolomite and
may indeed prefer the presence of a little magnesium. The collector
found it growing in stoney or slaty scree at 15,500 ft. (4730 m) in cen-
tral Bhutan. Forming neat clumps of dissected foliage, the flowers are a
rich violet-blue sometimes with a white beard on short 2- to 3-in. (5- to
8-cm) stems. As with all delphiniums, division, while sometimes possi-
ble, is not recommended, but propagation is by seed, sown as soon as it
is ripe.
Two rather rare species found in similar scree-like conditions are the
closely related Delphinium glaciale andD. nepalense. The former is a trea-
sure found in the upper limit of vegetation in Nepal and Sikkim where it
forms a cluster of tiny, hirsute leaves and disproportionately large flowers
a stunning misty blue held in twos or threes. Delphinium nepalense, re-
corded from north-western Nepal around Dolpo, has bright blue flowers
over grey-green foliage of similar habit to its cousins. These are exciting
species worth hunting for and giving pride of place in the garden.
No less demanding are species of Pamquilegia. This is the final mem-
ber of the Ranunculaceae I would like to highlight, one of the many
gems, found exclusively in cliffs or rock-crevices at high altitude from the
western Himalaya into the rich flora of Yunnan. The species we have
come to be most familiar with is P.gmndiflom (synonym P. anemonoides}.
208 CHAPTER FIVE

In the western limits it is often smaller flowered and pale pink to white in
colour, a variant that is often considered to be the separate species P. mi-
crophylla. Throughout the vast Himalaya collectors have been united in
awe of this true alpine aristocrat. While exploring in Bhutan in 1934,
Ludlow and SherrifF encountered the finest specimens they had ever
seen. Sherriff's diary for 14 July 1934 describes, "Hanging from the cliffs
north of the camp were dozens of aged clumps, some of them 2 feet [60
cm] across, Pamquilegiagmndiflora [L.S. 678], delicate bluish-green
deeply cut foliage blending beautifully with the large deep-violet, some-
times lilac, fragile, ever trembling flowers" (Fletcher 1975). Later, in

Delphinium glaciate, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 ALPINE ZONE 2O9

1938 when collecting with Ludlow and Sherriff, George Taylor found a
superb Tibetan form, again in cliffs at around 12,000 ft. (3660 m). He
said, "For all its sheer delicacy, poise and refinement it must be supreme."
Paraquikpfiagmndiflom is readily available from specialist nurseries
and its cultivation is not too demanding, either in a garden or in a pot
under glass. The best way to simulate its natural conditions is to grow it
in a trough or raised bed in a partly shaded aspect. The trough, about 36
by 18 in. (90 by 46 cm), should be of reasonable depth providing at least
12-18 in. (30-46 cm) of soil for a deep root run. Tufa rock is the fa-
vourite material to provide crevices in which to plant this species. Bury
tufa blocks roughly 12 in. (30 cm) square at least 6 in. (15 cm) into the
gritty soil which has been used to fill the trough.
The formation of tufa rock commences with rainfall which dissolves
and carries calcium carbonates. The water passes through pervious, or
open to penetration, layers of limestone, eventually reaching impervious
layers and emerging as springs. As the water passes through layers of de-
caying organic matter including roots and moss, deposits of calcium car-
bonate form around this material and gradually develop into porous in-
crustations. As the deposits increase, the rock "grows" upwards. Over
the period of many decades the rock known as "tufa" forms and can even-
tually be quarried as a soft, porous rock. Once exposed to the air, its sur-
face hardens into an extremely solid stone. I remember visiting a splen-
did tufa quarry in the south of Germany and being thrilled to see that
even the village church was constructed of tufa. Although tufa is often
made up of over 90 percent calcium carbonate, the porosity of the rock
allows all available lime to drain away. In practical terms, obtaining
weathered tufa or carrying out the weathering process ourselves by wa-
tering it from time to time and exposing all of it to air, will enable the
rock to be utilised in the garden as a prime means of growing crevice
dwellers, whether lime lovers or not.
Paraquilegias are often found on calcareous formations in the Hima-
laya and like to be wedged between pieces of tufa in the garden. In such
conditions the plants should thrive and establish clumps, flowering pro-
fusely in late spring. Although propagation can be carried out by stem
cuttings, I recommend hand-pollinating the flowers by gently transfer-
2IO CHAPTER FIVE

ring pollen from one bloom to another with a soft paint brush. Once the
little capsules have formed and begin to turn orange-brown, collect them
and remove the seed. As with its relatives in the Ranunculaceae, sow the
seed right away for successful germination.

Androsace
One of the highlights of this alpine zone is the numerous members of
the primula family, Primulaceae, of which the genus Andwsace proves
quite outstanding. The tireless work of both George Smith and Duncan
Lowe comes to mind immediately when we discuss this wonderful
genus. Their work on the subject, Androsaces., published in 1977 and later
revised, has proved invaluable in both identifying and growing the
plants. Both men died before witnessing the benefit their volume will
give to horticulture. As I stated early in this book, growing many of the
high Himalayan alpines successfully is only possible through a basic un-
derstanding of their habitat in nature. George Smith studied the native
habitat in great detail, and Duncan Lowe put the information into prac-
tice, growing many of the plants to perfection in raised beds in his Lan-
castrian garden on the west coast of northern England. The passing of
these two men in the late 1990s is a reminder of the legacy such individ-
uals leave, from which future generations may benefit.
My aim here is to write about a few of the finest species I have grown
satisfactorily, and to draw readers' attention to some exciting androsaces
which will surely be making their appearance in specialist nursery cata-
logues in the future. Most of them are spring-flowering in cultivation.
A significant factor in growing Himalayan androsaces successfully is
recognising their need, with a few exceptions, for snow cover from No-
vember to March, a requirement which we cannot offer in our low-alti-
tude gardens. A trough or section of a raised bed can, though, be cov-
ered artificially during this period by placing a stabilised structure of
either glass or some satisfactory substitute such as polycorbonate over
the plants in question so that the hirsute cushions do not rot with the
effects of winter wet or rolling winter fogs, such as we are subjected to on
the east coast of Scotland. Having mentioned more protective measures,
 ALPINE ZONE 211

I have never seen any ill effects attend the lovely and rewarding species
from the western Himalaya, Androsace semperpivoides. Here is a plant that
can immediately be recommended for a trough or raised bed, where it
should be positioned to enable the loose mats of spreading runners,
sprouting from neat rosettes, to fall over the perimeter. Neat umbels on
short stems of 1 to 2 in. (2.5-5 cm) carry showy deep-pink flowers with
a crimson eye, flowering in spring.

Androsace sempervivoides, Schachen Garden, southern Germany JIM JERMYN

212 CHAPTER FIVE

Androsace mucronifolia is another species native exclusively to the west-

ern Himalaya. It is accommodating, being none too fussy concerning
winter protection of the rosettes. It was first found in its true form in
Kashmir by Dieter Schacht and then later collected by the Swedish ex-
pedition to the Karakoram in north-western Pakistan in 1983 (the col-
lection numbers are prefixed by S.E.P.). The leaf rosettes are much smal-
ler than those of A. semperpivoides, and this species forms a tight mound
from a central rootstock. The short umbels carry two to six pale pink,
sweetly scented flowers. A trough is its ideal home, and as with A sem-
pervivoides, cuttings may be taken after flowering and will root easily in a
sandy mixture.

Androsace mucwnifolia, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 213

One of the most rewarding amongst these spring-flowering andro-

saces producing fine umbels of flowers is the much confused Andwsace
studiosorum (synonym^., primuloides}. It too is found in the western Hi-
malaya, notably in Kashmir and north-western India. In the late 1990s
Henry and Margaret Taylor found fine forms in a rich valley named the
Doksa in north-western India, where it grows in turfy hollows. The
flowers are usually pink, but sometimes pure white, held on dense, hairy
umbels over woolly rosettes sending out stolons 2-3 in. (5-8 cm) in
length, rooting as they go. I have found, even on the dryer east coast of
Scotland that these woolly rosettes are apt to rot in the winter unless they
are given some protection from the wet. In its best forms this is one of
the finer species. Closely related, and frequently confused withA studio-
sorum is A. sarmentosa; possibly the two would best be merged into one
variable species. Androsace sarmentosa enjoys a wider distribution, occur-
ring across Nepal and into Sikkim. It is represented by some fine forms
in cultivation, surely the finest being the vibrant carmine-pink A. sar-
mentosa 'Chumbyi'.
Flowering late in June and July is a personal favourite from the north-
western Himalaya, Androsace lanuginosa., growing on earthy banks and
open hillsides. It forms wide, loose mats of interlacing stems and looks
best trailing between rocks or pouring down from a dry stone wall. Aris-
ing from the leaf axils, often at the same time as the production of new
rosettes, are umbels of up to fifteen flowers of a distinct lilac-pink col-
our. A pure white form is named A. lanuginosa var. leichtlinii. All forms
are best given some winter protection.
As the altitude increases, thcAndrosace species begin to take on a diff-
erent look, with a tighter cushion or mat form. The higher the altitude
the more refined is the adaptation of the plant, yet it is interesting to note
that some species occur both in central Nepal and in south-western
China. Much farther east in the province of Yunnan androsaces grow at
a lower altitude and may display a different habit as a result. For this rea-
son we should not generalise about the appropriate habitat for a species;
an accurate appraisal of the true habitat of the plant in question together
with its geographic location needs to be understood.
George Smith spent much time trying to sort out the confusion sur-
214 CHAPTER FIVE

rounding the taxonomy of Androsace muscoidea for his revision of the

genus. The species and varieties which seem to cause difficulty for both
the horticulturist and taxonomist are A. muscoidea, A. robusta and A. vil-
losa var. jacquemontii. The androsace endemic to the north-western
Himalaya, displaying tight mats of congested woolly rosettes, seems to
be the variable A muscoidea. Smith believed that the popular plant found
in the western Himalaya in 1952 and named A. villosa M^X. jacquemontii
has a closer affinity to A. muscoidea. As a horticulturist I strongly agree,
especially considering the Taylors' notes on plants found in the Rohtang
La area of north-western India. Another subject requiring winter pro-
tection, A muscoidea has either pure white or pink flowers scenting the
air with honey. A superb white-flowering form was found in the valley

Androsace muscoidea, Kashmir DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 215

north of Dhaulagiri in Nepal in early June at an altitude of 15,900 ft.

(4850 m). It has been named A muscoidea 'Dhaulagiri'
Several plant hunters who have climbed to the head of the Marsyandi
Valley or botanised the upper part of the Kali Gandaki Valley, both in
west-central Nepal, note the stunning display of rich rose-purple flowers
belonging to the as recently as 1999 described Androsace robusta subsp.
purpurea. I find it rather intriguing that the lovely A. muscoidea 'Dhaula-
giri' was found at an altitude of 15,900 ft. (4850 m) in the same region
as the^4. robusta subsp.purpurea, while the latter seems to enjoy higher el-
evations, to around 16,400 ft. (5000 m). Another difference between the
two is that theA muscoidea 'Dhaulagiri' appears to flower in early June,
while the brightly coloured^, robusta subsp.purpurea flowers from the
middle of June on to the end of July. To grow these glorious alpines suc-
cessfully, a trough or raised bed with overhead winter protection will
provide the best chance of success. Ron McBeath recalls the sight of this
rose-purple-flowered form of A. robusta growing on "gentle sloping scree
with an easterly aspect, acre after acre was coloured a rich, rose-purple
with the androsace" (1985). Mat-forming with quite small rosettes of in-
curving hairy leaves, A. robusta has relatively large flowers held in an
umbel on a stem no more that 1 in. (2.5 cm) in length. Little variation
occurs in this region of central Nepal where the flowers display this stun-
ningly rich rose-purple. Surely this is a true Himalayan treasure worth
seeking that presents the keen grower no great challenge.
Now though, we enter the realms of a challenge. This in no way sug-
gests impossibility, rather a more intense need for attention to detail. A
number of mat-forming and cushion androsaces occur at high levels in
this alpine zone. Following are three of the finest as well as some exciting
species for the collector.
Only as a result of Nepal becoming more accessible to trekkers and
plant hunters since the 1950s have many of the exciting plants I am able
to describe here become known to horticulture. As mentioned earlier, it
was Polunin, Stainton, Sykes and Williams who made early expeditions
and introductions, while Lowndes, Beer and since the late 1970s Smith,
McBeath and other collectors have discovered and introduced these ex-
citing high-altitude androsaces.
2l6 CHAPTER FIVE

Widely distributed across the Himalaya and into northern Yunnan is

the desirable Androsace zambalensis. It is found between 15,000 and
17,000 ft. (4580-5190 m) growing on open stony ground and shale
slopes, but significantly not enjoying the wetter extremes of the eastern
Himalaya and Sikkim. It makes flat mats of tightly packed, globular ro-
settes up to 1 ft. (30 cm) across. Each rosette produces a very short scape
of three to five flowers, white with a yellow eye, but as the flowers age the
eye turns red. This will rank as one of the finest of all androsaces. It is
fairly amenable in a trough or raised bed, as long as the substrate in the
artificial habitat contains good organic soil with plenty of shaly drainage
material, both through the mix and on the surface around the cushions.
Do not allow these plants to become desiccated during the growing sea-
son by the combination of heat and drought.
A firm favourite of many alpine growers is Androsaceglobifem, occu-
pying the south side of the long Himalayan range. It is found between
11,000 and 15,000 ft. (3360-4580 m), generally on the wet, exposed
side of the mountains. It can form enormous mats and cushions which
cover themselves with the most wonderful lilac flowers. In nature it may
also be found as dense cushions on drier, sunny cliffs. In cultivation this
species loves to be tucked between stones on a raised bed and given full
exposure. As with the next species, A. lehmannii., it requires lots of water
during the growing season. In my experience, a week of drought results
in a completely brown and deceased cushion with only the label for
recognition. Winter protection is not so important on the east coast of
Scotland but in damper areas may be essential.
A species I have found to be a little less demanding is Androsace leh-
mannii, found commonly in Nepal at altitudes ranging from 11,000 to
16,000 ft. (3360-4880 m). It prefers meadow slopes exposed to the
summer rains and forms tight mats that may spread to several feet. I fre-
quently worry, rather needlessly, at the state of the winter rosettes, which
are a mass of tightly packed brown leaves. Yet the spring season produces
fresh leaf rosettes of lime-green foliage, followed by masses of white, or
occasionally pink, flowers on short stems with a lovely fragrance. Seed is
the best means of increase.
My personal favourite \sAndrosace delavayi. It has variable flower col-
 ALPINE ZONE 217

our, more typically white across Nepal and various shades of pink in
north-western Yunnan. This species was first discovered by Delavay in
north-western Yunnan at the end of the 1800s; it was growing in open
moorland or rock outcrops at around 14,000 ft. (4270 m). In the central
Himalaya it is found much higher, between 15,000 and 17,500 ft.
(4580-5340 m), in consolidated screes, loose moraine and rock crevices.
I have not found the plants to be as long-lived as other related species,
but they do form the most perfect small cushions of woolly rosettes stud-
ded with flowers of a wonderful fragrance.
As with most of these species, Androsace delavayi is relatively easily
propagated by cuttings taken after flowering and rooted in pure, gritty

Androsace lehmannii, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

218 CHAPTER FIVE

sand or a mixture of sand and perlite, placed in a propagator, or a cov-

ered, heated box that can allow up to 50 percent shade in summer. Col-
lecting seed of any species of Androsace can be time consuming, requiring
a sharply-pointed pair of scissors to snip the seed capsules without losing
the seed. Once the seed has been separated from the capsules, I recom-
mend sowing it immediately as with the petiolarid primulas. A general,
soil-based seed compost will prove satisfactory, and as long as the seed is
not sown too thickly, the germinated seedlings may be left a full year be-
fore transplanting. This method reduces the danger of young seedlings
drying out at their most susceptible stage. Where possible the seed pots
should be plunged up to their rims in sand. Once the seed has germi-
nated, feed with a very weak liquid fertiliser of a low nitrogen type.
Few genera found in the Himalaya have the potential for raising one's
adrenaline to the degree that androsaces do. In the last few years suc-

Andwsace ddavayi, Khung Valley, central Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 ALPINE ZONE 219

cessful expeditions have been made to south-eastern Tibet and to the rich
hunting grounds of north-western Yunnan, where a number of exciting
species grow that are sure to make a profound impact in horticulture as
the years go by. I have seen slides of species, including Androsatce bisulca.,
with cherry-red flowers, from Tibet, as well as its golden-yellow-flow-
ered form, A. bisulca var. aumta, growing in an open, sun-baked slope
by degraded pine forests in south-western Sichuan. Both of these form
tight cushions with umbels of one to four flowers and will undoubtedly
require all the cultivation skills of the grower to keep them true to char-
acter.
A final species is the taprooted Androsace tapete, seen at its stunning
best as wide cushions in the Hidden Valley of central Nepal. Generally
preferring dryer conditions in nature, the stemless flowers are most usu-
ally pure white, and undoubtedly, achieving a well-flowered cushion of
this species, whether grown in the alpine house or out in a trough, would
be a great achievement.

Primula
The primula family has proved to be one of the most popular Himala-
yan plant groups, represented by the gencrzAndrosace., Omphalqgramma
and of course most notably Primula itself.
The alpine zone is host to a great selection of these exciting primula
species, many of which are well established in gardens, but which certain-
ly require skillful cultivation and regular propagation to maintain their
vigour. Eventually, in many cases where a pollen-sterile clone has been
introduced into cultivation as the sole representation, the plant will
weaken and subsequently die. It is of great virtue when collectors obtain
seed from the wild of as wide a variation of material as possible to widen
the gene pool. When collecting vegetative material of primulas, collec-
tors should secure several specimens of preferably both "pin-eyed" and
"thrum-eyed" flowering forms, again to strengthen the breeding oppor-
tunities and thus maintain stocks of these plants in horticulture.
Over the decades, from the time of Ludlow and Sherriff to now, many
efforts have been made to secure material of surely one of the most
22O CHAPTER FIVE

breathtaking of all primulas. It is Primula calliantha,., a member of the

section Nivales (Crystallophlomis], first discovered by Delavay in Yunnan.
Although hardly coming into the alpine zone, growing typically at
around 12,500 ft. (3810 m) in south-eastern Tibet, it warrants careful
treatment in the garden. Ludlow's diary for 9 June 1938 reports their
first acquaintance with this species in the field: "It was a breathtaking ex-
perience, and the sight of huge tracts of hillside aflame with its colour re-
main a picture of unparalleled beauty" (Fletcher 1975). They found it
growing at high altitudes, on rock ledges and moss-covered boulder
scree, always in damp situations. They noticed upon lifting a plant that it
had become established over a large stone slab, the roots being splayed
out over the surface. It forms large compact resting buds, rather akin to
P. sonchifolia and P.griffithii, heavily coated with sulphury farina, requir-
ing a period of reduced watering and protection from winter wet. At
flowering, the foliage is narrowly strap shaped with yellow farina below,
and the blooms, up to ten in a truss, are a glorious rich purple. Clearly,
this is a very special plant requiring careful thought to choose the best
position in the garden. Once established, the clumps are best left well
alone, making seed the only viable means of propagation.
Closely related to Primula cattiantha are the challenging primulas of
the subsection Agleniana. These include P. elizabethae and P. falcifolia,
stunningly beautiful plants found in south-eastern Tibet forming red-
dish, bulb-like resting buds and two to three beautifully fragrant, prim-
rose-yellow flowers held on a scape. Growing conditions should apply
as for P. calliantha. I hope that fresh seed will again be collected to rein-
troduce these exciting plants.
Two species belonging to the section Amethystina sometimes become
available from seed collections.One is the widely distributed Primula
dickieana, the only member of this fine section to reach Nepal. Its distri-
bution extends along a 900-mile (14,400-km) belt from eastern Nepal,
through Sikkim, Bhutan, south-eastern Tibet into north-western Yun-
nan. This lovely species was first introduced into cultivation by Ludlow
and Sherriff in 1949 after they discovered it on many occasions while
travelling in Bhutan and Tibet. On one occasion Ludlow and Taylor,
when collecting on the Doshong La in south-eastern Tibet, observed
 ALPINE ZONE 221

specimens of the primula displaying white, yellow, mauve, violet and

purple corollas, the variation sometimes occurring within the same mass
of plants or other times a particular variation was more localised. The
most typical habitat of this species ranges from steep, wet, scrubby mead-
ows to boggy ground over a wide altitudinal range of 11,500 to 16,500
ft. (3510-5030 m).

Primula dickieana, Barun, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

222 CHAPTER FIVE

The whole plant is effarinose and grows from a small rootstock, the
root system is shallow and rather weak. The scape varies from 3 to 9 in.
(8-23 cm) in height and forms an umbel of from one to nine flowers.
This primula is most desirable. Perhaps the best garden position for it in-
volves growing a number of plants in close proximity amongst damp,
moss-covered rocks next to a watercourse. While such a situation may
prove to be a luxury, a cool spot on a raised bed that will never dry out
fully, should also work. I have not found that the effarinose resting buds
require winter cover, on the contrary serious losses may occur when they
dry out during the dormant season.
Closely related and similar in habit is the more amenable Primula
amethystina in its robust form, P. amethystine var. brevifolia. This plant is
locally abundant on the Beima Shan, north-western Yunnan, at around
12,000 ft. (3660 m) in open, damp, turfy meadow where hundreds of
plants grow in small areas. Similar to P. dickieana, this one makes a flat
rosette of effarinose, glossy green leaves. The flower stem is typically up
to 4 in. (10 cm) in height, producing an umbel of many violet to
amethyst bells, nodding, beautifully fringed and similar to the European
soldanellas. This attractive little plant grows well for me in eastern Scot-
land in a trough and has proved fairly resilient in a cool position.
Two species from this section Amethystina require that we patiently
await their reintroduction: Primula kingii andP valentiniana. They are
similar in flower with velvety, rich wine-red flowers, which Ludlow and
Sherriff found in vast numbers at various locations in south-eastern
Tibet. What a rich Himalayan hunting ground this area has proved to be,
and how we yearn to hunt there again!
A close link connects many sections of the genus Primula., and this is
certainly evident with the sections Rotundifolia (Cordifolia] and Nivales
(Crystallophlomis}. The closest link shows in the species P. obtusifolia from
the north-western Himalaya. The section Rotundifolia contains several
important Himalayan species of which P. rotundifolia, the type species,
has made a great impact in horticulture since about 1970. This species is
confined to the south side of the central Himalayan range from Gosain-
kund, Nepal, eastward into Sikkim, being locally abundant in the Ever-
est region. This is a markedly farinose plant found growing rather signifi-
 ALPINE ZONE 223

cantly beneath overhanging rocks, suggesting a position in the garden

that will not be subject to excessive wet, requiring winter protection from
overhead rain. The distinct foliage is rounded with yellow farina beneath.
From it arise 9- to 12-in. (23- to 30-cm) stems carrying lax umbels of at-
tractive pinkish purple flowers with a golden yellow eye. In its best forms
this is a lovely species which I have been unable to take beyond mid-to-
late summer, suggesting that I am not respecting its desire to have a
marked dormancy at this stage. This has puzzled me as friends Mike and
Polly Stone have grown it so well in what I call near-Himalayan condi-
tions in north-western Scotland at Fort Augustus.
I have the same bitter experience with the very closely related Prim-
ula bamardoana (synonym P. elongata), similar in all respects to the fore-
going P. rotundifolia except that it displays umbels of lemon-yellow
flowers, often as two superposed umbels, such as amongst the candelabra
primulas. This species is found on grassy banks or open rock ledges at el-
evations of 12,000 to!3,000 ft. (3660-3970 m) from eastern Nepal
through to Tibet. In its best forms with rich golden yellow to orange
flowers this is a plant worth giving pride of place, best tucked between
rocks in a cool position. It may be worth experimenting and giving the
plant protection from late summer as the resting buds form, making it
ready to enter dormancy. This and the other members of the section
Amethystina can be raised from seed. Other members are P. gambeliana
and P. caveana. The latter grows at the highest altitude of all primulas,
occurring in the Everest range at about 20,000 ft. (6100 m), growing in
dry rock crevices.
Three members of the section Petiolares deserve special mention here
despite the fact that much has already been written in earlier chapters
about this important group of plants. The higher alpine reaches in the
Himalaya no doubt have many secrets still to unfold, as more plant-hunt-
ing trips proceed into the side valleys in Tibet and Nepal. This expecta-
tion is supported by the history of probably the favourite petiolarid prim-
ula, one of the most desirable and beautiful of all Himalayan plants,
Primula aureata. It is to be found in vertical crevices and earthy banks in
central Nepal, most particularly in the Langtang and Gosainkund, both
holy areas to the Nepalese. The species was hardly known by Western
224 CHAPTER FIVE

botanists until 1935, when Bailey brought seeds back to the Royal Bo-
tanic Garden in Edinburgh. Many reintroductions have been made sub-
sequently and further seed or plant material has been introduced of both
the type species and the subspecies, P. aureata subsp.fimbriata.
An ultimate reward for plant-oriented trekkers to this well-known area
in April and May, before the onslaught of monsoon, must be the sight of
steep rock bluffs stained yellow with silvery, farinose rosettes crammed
into the vertical crevices and bursting into flower. The two forms seem to
enjoy differing altitudinal range and habitats. The type plant Primula
aureatct has been collected at altitudes between 10,000 and 12,300 ft.
(3050-3750 m) and always seeks shelter from the direct rain, whereas P.
dureata subsp.fimbriata does not occur below 13,700 ft. (4180 m) and
is frequently found in very wet conditions, sometimes under waterfalls.
This observation benefits gardeners as we endeavour to grow the plants
at home.

Primula aureatn, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

 ALPINE ZONE 225

My experience of the type species has been to grow it in a trough, all

on its own, wedged between pieces of rock and given overhead winter
protection. The plants can be tucked tightly in a trough with a depth of
at least 12 in. (30 cm) to allow the roots to penetrate into the soil. Dur-
ing the growing season I find that the plants require plenty of water and
an occasional weak foliar feed. After the whole trough has been covered
during the winter, beautiful silvery, farinose leaves begin to unfurl in
March and April, revealing a perfectly formed posy of creamy yellow
flowers with a broad orange eye, a truly spectacular sight for the suc-
cessful cultivator. In this restricted, artificial habitat, the plants will need
to be lifted every three years, split up after flowering when in full growth
and replanted in a completely fresh mix.
Where several plants have been raised of both pin-eyed and thrum-
eyed forms, then hand-pollination with a soft paint brush will encour-
age a good seed set. Alternatively an all-pin stock will often set seed pro-
ducing all-pin progeny. During the early summer diligent search amongst
the expanding foliage will reveal short, red stems carrying fat seed cap-
sules. When they begin to reach maturity the seeds will be clearly visible
beneath the transparent outer coat. As this outer coat begins to open,
collect the capsule, put it in a paper bag and allow it to open in a cool,
dry place, which should take a day or two. When the seed falls away nat-
urally it should be sown immediately in a loam-based seed compost.
Cover the seed with a little gritty sand and plunge the pot in sand to keep
it cool.
Primula deuteronana, another genuinely alpine petiolarid species, is
often to be found growing in close proximity to P. aureata, subsp. fimbri-
ata. It is found in central Nepal and Sikkim, often in fairly large popula-
tions, on open moorland and rock outcrops at an altitude between 14,000
and 15,000 ft. (4270-4580 m). First introduced by Lowndes in 1954,
there is no reason why this species should not become widely grown in
gardens. It requires a cool situation with plentiful moisture during the
growing season. It forms congested rosettes, with the young leaves and
overwintering buds often heavily farinose. The flowers are virtually stem-
less and form a neat posy of bright pink, lilac-purple or occasionally pure
white. Several members of botanical trips to the Gosainkund region have
226 CHAPTER FIVE

reported finding hybrids between P. aureata and P. deutewnana, display-

ing exquisite flowers dark pink at the fringes, fading to cream with a bright
orange-yellow eye. The feature distinguishing the true P. deuteronana are
the hairs within the narrow tube at the internal base of the petals.
A final petiolarid species and one of the most outstanding of the Hi-
malayan primulas introduced since 1980 is Primula pulchm, found by
George Smith in north-eastern Nepal close to the Sikkim border at a site
on the Singalila range in the shadow of Kanchenjunga (28,171 ft.; 8590
m). This is a high alpine species, looking for all the world like a tiny form
of P. tsariensis or P. calderiana. I have found it to be amenable in a trough,
tucked between rocks with a lime-free soil mixed with peat and gritty
sand. Forming tight rosettes, it has proved to be stoloniferous and there-
fore easily propagated by detaching the young offshoots and replanting
or potting them on. As yet I have not found this single clone to set seed,
but in flower it is certainly a showstopper with its neat short-stemmed
posy of purple-blue flowers with a yellow eye.
Two desirable species lying a little uneasily, from a taxonomist's point
of view, in the section Farinosae, are Primula sharmae and P. concinna.

Primula pulchm, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

 ALPINE ZONE 227

Both occupy rocky areas, screes and open grassy slopes at altitudes up to
15,000 ft. (4580 m). Primula, sharmae is rather local, distributed in west-
ern and central Nepal. It is an attractive primula, with purplish mauve
flowers on short stems. The finely toothed foliage has distinctive white
farina on the undersides. Primula, continue, a tiny plant, is found from
western Nepal through to south-eastern Tibet, displaying pink flowers
with a yellow eye. Both species would certainly grow satisfactorily in a
trough, tucked between stones, as long as they never catch the full brunt
of the summer heat. Seed is the means of propagation, and as with many
members of this section, the plants may prove to be short-lived, necessi-
tating rejuvenation from seed.

'Probably Primula cnvennn, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

228 CHAPTER FIVE

Most of these higher alpines sadly become available only occasionally

as a result of organised expeditions to the Himalaya. When the seed is
distributed, it very often ends up in the hands of growers who are under
the impression that the best place for a choice or rarely encountered Hi-
malayan alpine is a pot in the alpine house. But in fact unless the plant is
removed to the outdoors at the beginning of May, in the United King-
dom, and either plunged in sand in a cold frame or planted out in the
open, it will likely succumb to overheating, not to drying out as may be
suspected. Plants imprisoned in an alpine house often boil to death dur-
ing the early summer, or fall under a fatal attack of aphid. Many readers
will now understand my absolute discomfort at the thought of these spe-
cialised plants being given a home under glass for often their only chance
in cultivation. A trough or raised bed is always preferable for all but a very
few species which by nature of their woolly habit will prefer a well-ven-
tilated glass house.
Two easy members of the same section Farinosae and subsection Sibir-
ica (Armerina) arc Primula involucrctta andP tibetica. Primula involucrata
is widespread from Pakistan across to China, often found at high altitude
in any damp or marshy pockets. In its best forms, this is a lovely primula,
with white to pinkish-mauve flowers at the western end of its limit. Its
popular form P. involucmta subsp. yargongensis, from the eastern Hima-
laya, displays deep pink or purple flowers. They are easily grown in any
damp acid soil. Much the same can be said as to the cultivation of P. ti-
betica, which deserves a higher profile than it is generally given. This
lovely species also enjoys a wide distribution across the Himalaya and is
often seen at its best in bold drifts at altitudes up to 13,500 ft. (4120 m)
wherever marshes form. Altogether, it is a smaller plant than P. involu-
crata, with striking umbels of rose-pink, yellow-eyed flowers on stems
varying from 2 to 6 in. (5-15 cm). Both these species may be raised from
seed, which is best sown soon after harvesting.
I would like to recommend the use of live sphagnum moss, not sphag-
num peat, which is formed after years of decomposition, in an open gar-
den situation when growing many Primula species. In many parts of Eu-
rope and North America, though, sphagnum moss has become a rather
rare commodity, and therefore I do not recommend the wholesale col-
 ALPINE ZONE 229

leering of it from wild habitats. This type of acid moorland moss is unique
in my experience for its moisture-retention and antiseptic properties, for
the fact that it is simply wonderful to handle, for its good smell and for
its added virtue of very often displaying an attractive pink colour. I find
it very helpful to place a collar of live sphagnum around a plant, ensuring
that part of the moss is exposed to the air to keep it active in growth. The
roots of Primula-., Cremanthodium or Gentian will find refuge in the moss,
drawing from its reserve of moisture during periods of drought. Sphag-
num moss may also be dried and sterilised in a microwave oven, to be
utilised as a wonderful medium for raising seed of tricky species.

Primula involucmta., Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

23O CHAPTER FIVE

Few species of the section Minutissimae have become established in

gardens. Two species have been established since the late 1940s. The first
is Primula primulina, long known as P.pusilla and introduced as far back
as 1886 when seed was sent to Kew. It is placed in the subsection Bella by
Wright Smith and Fletcher, where it does fit in well with the closely re-
lated P. bella andP bella subsp. nanobella together with P. cydostegia, found
in the 1990s in north-western Yunnan. Primulaprimulina is certainly a
plant meriting the grower's careful consideration of position in the gar-
den, as few have succeeded with it for many seasons. In nature P. primulina
is often abundant at altitudes of 14,000 to 15,000 ft. (4270-4580 m) on
rocky outcrops or open grassy slopes, and in this latter situation it may be
seen in large numbers in the Langtang, growing with the lovely Potentilla
microphylla. Ludlow and Sherriff frequently came across it in south-east-
ern Tibet and Bhutan, where at 15,500 ft. (4730 m) it covered the hill-
sides along with the cream-flowered Primula sikkimensis var. hopeana;
what a superb and memorable experience it must have been. Primula
primulina is a tiny plant with a farinose rosette of toothed leaves, produc-
ing an umbel of two to four purple to violet flowers easily distinguished by
the tuft of white hairs in the throat. As to growing it in the garden, I rec-
ommend a trough positioned in a cool spot away from the full glare of
summer heat, without being positioned in full shade. Tuck the little plant-
lets between stones and try to establish some moss to grow amongst the
plants to protect them from both summer dryness and the winter ravages.
Winter protection is beneficial too. Seed is the only practical means of
propagation if the plants become established in this situation.
The classic member of this section Minutissimae., and a truly stolonifer-
ous species, is Primula reptans, a plant I have grown since 1975 when I
received a wee piece from Dieter Schacht upon leaving my apprentice-
ship under his tutelage at Munich Botanic Garden. Memories flood back
of my first trip to the Schachen Garden, an alpine garden affiliated to the
Munich Botanic Garden, situated in the Wetterstein Mountains in
Bavaria, southern Germany. A friend and I set off eagerly from the rail-
way station in Garmisch Partenkirchen very early in the morning one late
June day. Gaining height quickly we clambered up through the forest
out onto a stoney mountain road leading up to the garden. We passed
 ALPINE ZONE 231

by drifts of snow giving us concern that the garden would still be cov-
ered with snow. On arrival we found many areas of the botanical collec-
tion free of snow, and to my astonishment patches of the lovely Primula,
reptans, 1 ft. (30 cm) or more across and in fullest flower, were growing
together with the stunning and equallyfloriferousyl/pz7<^mnivalis. The
flat mats of the primula were made up of tiny little incurved and toothed
leaves covered with large, stemless flowers in a brilliant violet-purple. At
that time, I had no idea that the plant was stoloniferous in habit and
would one day enable me to fill 3-in. (8-cm) pots with tufts of rooted
stolons and market them the length and breadth of Britain for £3 each.
Maybe readers will understand how part of me feels uneasy at the
thought of curtailing my retail nursery trade, with the fun of raising and
disseminating such exciting plants.

Primulaprimulina, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

232 CHAPTER FIVE

I have greatly enjoyed reading articles written by Henry and Margaret

Taylor documenting their trips to locations in the north-western Hima-
laya, including the Rohtang La at 13,100 ft. (3400 m) and the Nalgan
Pass at 16,400 ft. (5000 m) in north-western India. On the Nalgan Pass
on 29 August 1998 they report great masses of Primula reptans in full
flower occupying steep wet slopes close to a snow bank. This setting is
staggering, as the Taylors point out, considering that the first snows re-
turn in late September, allowing only a few weeks of growing season for
these high alpines. During this short period the primula must emerge
from the snow, produce flowers to be duly pollinated by insects and fer-
tilised, and set seed ready for dispersal. The flower in nature is often a
 ALPINE ZONE 233

lilac colour, somewhat paler than the Ludlow and Sherriff collections
many of us grow in our gardens.
I have grown this little primula in a trough satisfactorily. To produce
a show-off, fill the trough with a richer medium of soil, grit and peat with
a few handfuls of very well-rotted manure rubbed through a sieve. This
mix should produce healthy plants covered with flowers in May or early
June. At no time during the growing season should plants dry out or
cook in the summer heat. As the autumn proceeds, the foliage will turn
a lovely yellow and then brown as the deciduous clumps become dor-
mant. During the winter I always sprinkle a little gritty sand amongst the
mass of stems and exposed surface roots, as they are often drawn to the
surface with the frost. Winter protection is not essential but is sensible.
Propagation is simple, requiring only that after flowering the clump be
lifted, teased apart then replanted in a fresh mixture. For gardens in hot,
dry climates, do not incorporate too much grit into the soil, for promot-
ing the drainage too much will lead to subsequent drying out. With just
one clone in my possession I have never secured seed, but have received
seed from the same pin-eyed clone grown in the Schachen Garden.
Trips of the 1990s to various parts of central Nepal located several
other members of this fascinating section of Primula. No doubt it is just
a matter of time until we will be able to welcome such species as P.
minutissima and P. tenuiloba. The former displays lovely purplish-pink
flowers, and P. tenuiloba generally has pure white flowers or bluish white
with a white eye. These would be very desirable additions suitable for the
same conditions in the garden as for P. reptans.
An alpine gem from the Sino-Himalayan province of Yunnan is Prim-
ula, dryadifolia, belonging to a section all its own, Dryadifolia. This species
is common on many mountains in Yunnan, growing in Sichuan and just
into south-eastern Tibet. It frequents screes, rock crevices, also steep hill-
sides amongst dwarf rhododendrons at altitudes between 13,800 and
16,000 ft. (4210-4880 m). Significantly, plants are very often found
growing in limestone scree, maldng this an excellent subject for a trough
amongst dolomite limestone rocks. It forms wide mats of oval foliage
with white farina beneath, on short stalks amongst a network of almost
woody stems. The beautiful flowers are held tightly, one to five in number,
234 CHAPTER FIVE

beneath a purple, baggy calyx, and the best forms are a glorious deep red-
dish purple or ruby-red with a dark center. Pale pink forms are also found
with a dark eye. The flowering stems rarely exceed 2-3 in. (5-8 cm).

Primula tenuiloba with Potentilla microphylla, Langtang, central Nepal

DIETER SCHACHT
 ALPINE ZONE 235

Since its reintroduction from the successful Alpine Garden Society trip
to Yunnan in 19941 have grown this plant quite happily in a trough with
a loamy soil including more than the usual gritty sand and a measure of
peat. I have placed pieces of flattish dolomite stone vertically, almost
down to the base of the trough, and planted the young primulas next to
them. The roots clearly enjoy both the composition of the rock and the
cool face it provides as a refuge in hot spells. Primula dryadifolia is a plant
that needs a good measure of light all year round in order to flower well,
and once happily established it should produce plenty of seed. I have
noted to my cost that it is very susceptible to aphid, or greenfly, attack,
and some form of control is crucial or plants will be overcome with it
when they are in full growth. Winter protection is advisable, although
this robust plant responds to plenty of air.
The pinnacle of my gardening experience thus far has come through
the section Soldanettoides, perhaps the finest amongst all the primulas. The
section embraces a number of species in the distinct class of high alpine
plants, including some with the most heavenly fragrance. High alpine
meadows in central Nepal are studded with the purplish blue Primula
wollastonii., with masses of P. wigramiana in purest white and with hy-
brids between the two growing amongst other exciting plants. Growing
these soldanelloid primulas in the garden will test the grower's skill to
the full in all but the most amenable geographic locations where the
growing season enjoys a naturally cool and humid atmosphere.
Should they become available I encourage readers to brace themselves
for the following Himalayan species: Primula wigramiana, P. wollastonii,
P. buryana, P. bury ana var. purpurea, P. klattii (synonym P. uniflora), P. sol-
danelloides, P. sandemaniana, P. sapphirina and P cawdoriana. This is rather
a formidable group of plants in anyone's book, but they may make an
entry into horticulture and when they do, will certainly deserve a Han-
delian fanfare. Having covered the widely available P. reidii and P. reidii
var. williamsii in Chapter 3 as representatives of the section Soldanelloides.,
I will now describe the most likely species to appear from botanical ex-
peditions, with the hope that in due time others will follow.
Primula wollastonii along with others encountered in central and east-
ern Nepal has been known to science for some time but has become fa-
236 CHAPTER FIVE

Possible hybrid between Primula wollastonii and P. wigramiana, Langtang, central

Nepal DIETER SCHACHT
 ALPINE ZONE 237

miliar to gardeners only in the late twentieth century with the travels of
George Smith giving us a glimpse of these superb plants. It was first dis-
covered by Wollaston, a member of the 1921 Everest expedition in the

Primula cawdoriana, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

238 CHAPTER FIVE

northern, Tibetan approaches to the mountain. The species is to be found

in Nepal and the adjoining regions of southern Tibet, ranging from the
Langtang valleys of central Nepal to the Lumbasamba Himal just east of
the Everest massif. It occupies an altitudinal range from 14,800 to
18,000 ft. (4510-5490 m), while its western limits drop to 13,100 ft.
(4000 m). The species is fairly abundant in the upper Barun Valley where
the conditions are generally very damp. Mossy cliffs and gritty-earth
banks also host dwarf rhododendrons.
Primula wollastonii has a very distinct appearance making it difficult to
confuse with others except that it appears to hybridise with P. wgmmitma,
in central Nepal. Typically it has most attractive thimble-like flowers of a
sumptuous dark purple to violet blue, and the inside of the thimbles have
dense, white farina. Each flower is tightly held in umbels of two to six,
pointing downward with the bells not flaring out at all. The flowers give
a subtle fragrance, not as intense as P. reidii. The baggy calyx varies in col-
our from green to purple and pure white in the albino-flowered form, P.
wollastonii var. alba.

Primula buryana var. purpurea, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 ALPPINE ZONE 239

Primula wollastonii, Edrom Nurseries, Berwickshire JIM JERMYN

240 CHAPTER FIVE

Cultivation is not too tricky when the plants are in a trough filled with
an acid, freely drained mixture with added humus. Keep plants well wa-
tered when in growth, and they will send up little plantlets as a result of
surface roots, forming leaf buds which eventually will grow to maturity.
Placing a few deeply entrenched stones in the trough will keep the roots
cool and plants will be more likely to survive a prolonged spell of heat.
Propagate by division by severing the young plantlets while in full

Primula, wollastonii var. alba, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 241

growth but not under stress, or by seed which is by far the best means
with all these soldanelloid species.
Primula, wigra-miana, has not maintained as strong a hold in cultiva-
tion as P. wollastonii., mainly because although it requires the same con-
ditions in the garden, it does not produce the adventitious root buds
which subsequently form young plants around the main plant. This
means the grower gets one chance with his plant and that is it. Flowering
in June or July in Nepal at similar altitudes to P. wottastonii, it forms sim-
ilar tight rosettes of pale green foliage with little evidence of a leaf peti-
ole, which is so distinct with other soldanelloid primulas. The inflores-
cence held on 4- to 6-in. (10- to 15-cm) stems is made up of six or seven
large, white, flared bells with a wonderful fragrance. Beauty is added as
the flower-heads are topped with a cluster of purplish calyces. This is a
gem amongst Himalayan high alpines, providing great excitement for
those who have seen it dominating hillsides in central Nepal, generally
in grass amongst Potentilla arbuscula and Rhododendron lepidotum.

Rhododendron lepidotum, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

242 CHAPTER FIVE

Primula wigramiana with Corydalis cashmeriana, Schachen Garden, southern

Germany DIETER SCHACHT
 ALPINE ZONE 243

A little more fragile in all respects is the distinguished P. klattii (syno-

nym P. uniflora). This species was first collected by Hooker at the end of
the nineteenth century but was introduced into cultivation in 1911-12.
It did not persist, but was reintroduced by George Smith in 1977 when

Primula klatti, Barun, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

244 CHAPTER FIVE

he collected material in the Barun Valley in eastern Nepal. In its native

habitat it thrives in steep meadows between 13,000 and 16,000 ft.
(3970-4880 m) in a region which appears to have permanent humidity
during the short growing season. Its distribution stretches from eastern
Nepal through Sikkim to Bhutan and south-eastern Tibet. Finding this
species for the first time while botanising in central Bhutan, SherrifFwas
moved to write in his notes on 24 July 1937, "This is a magnificent prim-
ula, now in full flower, on a very small patch of open grassy hillside. It
opens more fully than any other primula in this section, being almost flat
and looking straight out at one, not pendulous at all. The biggest flower
was !5/8 inches [4 cm] across" (Fletcher 1975).
In cultivation the resting bud takes the form of a tight cluster of tiny
leaves, surrounded by persistent withered foliage. The summer rosette is
lax, with long-petioled, hairy and toothed leaves, supporting the 3- to 6-
in. (8- to 15-cm) stem carrying one or two glorious flowers, purplish
blue or white with a wine-red or purplish calyx.
I have found this wonderful plant to be amenable in the open with
winter protection. The challenge is to prevent the lax rosettes from rot-
ting with so much decaying foliage attached, as well as anchoring them
during the growing season. Surrounding the plants with a generous cov-
ering of grit has not proved to be satisfactory, possibly causing com-
paction which should be avoided at all cost. My goal is to locate a non-in-
vasive type of moss that will grow around the plants and act as a
protective layer at all times. Growing several plants hopefully will attract
night-flying moths to act as pollinators and bring about a means of prop-
agation from seed.
Along with many other growers of Himalayan primulas I also have
had a measure of success with other members of this section, including
Primula buryana and P. cawdoriana, but we eagerly await fresh seed of
these species to augment the current material in horticulture.
Never should keen growers and lovers of these exquisite high alpine
primulas be put off by anyone. They will respond to efforts to give them
the correct conditions according to their natural geographic location.
The golden rules for growing them are simply:
 ALPINE ZONE 245

1. Try to grow mature plants out in the open.

2. Endeavour to keep the plants cool during the growing season.
3. Do not handle a plant when it is under stress.
4. When possible, grow several plants in close proximity.
Most important of all, even if the joy of growing and flowering a plant is
fleeting, enjoy the experience, savour it and share it with others. These
plants certainly were not created for the yaks to trample over—surely they
were meant for our enjoyment.

Other Genera
While most lovers of the high Himalayan alpines will tend to favour the
big genera, including Primula, Androsace, Gentian, Saxifraga, and Me-
conopsis, a great number of other genera demand our close consideration.
One is Corydalis which was well monographed in 1997 by Magnus Liden
and Henrik Zetterlund whose knowledge and hard work have been in-
strumental in helping horticulturists choose from such a wonderful and
varied race of plants. Many newly introduced species have found their
way into cultivation from the Sino-Himalaya since 1990, adding to the
interest of this genus. The following plants are Nepalese species most
likely to gain a foothold in cultivation. They are demanding of culture, as
one may expect from this high alpine zone.
Three species belonging to the section Latiflorae of Corydalis may be
found at high altitudes in the central Himalaya. Corydalis latiflora is a real
gem of the alpine screes, often seen in central Nepal at locations well
above 14,500 ft. (4420 m), including the Thorung La and the Toridwari
Banyang in western Nepal. It produces racemes of beautifully fragrant,
greyish blue or pink flowers above a loose cushion of greyish foliage.
Equally exciting is the yellow-flowered C. megacalyx} a dwarf, scree plant
producing a deep root stock and finely cut, glaucous foliage. Often found
in central Nepal at altitudes up to 14,500 ft. (4420 m), the yellow
flowers held in a dense cluster are striped dark brown. The third species
is the more widespread C. meifolia., found from the Indian Himachal
Pradesh to south-eastern Tibet. It is often seen amongst rocks in central
246 CHAPTER FIVE

Nepal flowering between June and August. It is a floriferous species, pro-

ducing striking racemes up to 2 in. (5 cm) long in yellow or sometimes
orange with brown-purple or violet tips. In 1998 Henry and Margaret
Taylor, while botanising in Kinnaur, north-western India, found on the
Rupin Pass a superb form of this species, C. meifolia var. violacea, dis-
playing the characteristic glaucous, feathery foliage but with pink, ma-
roon-eyed flowers.
How, then, can we attempt to grow these choice alpine corydalises in
our lowland gardens? The first hurdle to cross is to obtain the plants.
Seed may be offered from time to time after trips to the Himalaya, but
this is a genus with seed that is only viable for a short period of time,
meaning that the sooner seed is sown after harvesting, the better the
chances of germination. It can be sown in the usual way on a loam-based
seed compost, with a thin covering of gritty sand and the pots plunged in

Corydalis meifolia, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 247

sand. In my experience, it is better not to prick out newly germinated

seedlings of this genus and other fragile subjects, but rather to wait an-
other full season. Waiting gives the little rhizome a chance to form, which
makes the transfer of the seedlings less hazardous. When the seed is sown
fresh in the autumn, germination may take place prior to the turn of the
year, with one single cotyledon present. The following season, the first
true leaves will appear, to indicate that all is well. When the soil is moist
and the year-old plants are several weeks into the new season's growth,
prick them out into pots of a moisture-retentive but well-drained mix.
The non-tuberous members of this section Latiflorae should grow well in
a trough with an open mixture. Incorporate plenty of stones into the mix
to invite the rhizomes to find a cool situation akin to their native condi-
tions. Good light should encourage flowering. What a thrill it is to suc-
ceed with subjects such as these.
A number of isolated genera have just one or two species that are fre-
quently found in this alpine zone. Amongst these species are some highly
desirable garden plants, some rarely seen but nevertheless well worth
seeking out and giving a chance in a trough or raised bed.
Arenaria,glanduligem is a gem amongst the vast genus of sandworts
belonging to the Caryophyllaceae, the pink family. Although by no means
the only member of the genus worth growing, it is the one most would
clamber for. I have not found it at all difficult, either to raise from seed
or to cultivate. Though no doubt I overfed it one season when the result
was a surfeit of rich growth at the expense of flowers. The challenge is to
grow it according to its true character. It is widely distributed at high ele-
vations, up to 18,000 ft. (5490 m), in scree from Kashmir across the Hi-
malayan massif into Bhutan. It is a loosely tufted plant producing soli-
tary deep pink, dark-eyed flowers on short stems. Tuck the plants between
stones in a rather lean soil mix and they should be free flowering and will-
ing to set seed, which is the best means of propagation.
The genus Cremanthodium has already been covered in Chapter 4,
with a number of species recommended for the ravine garden or a dedi-
cated spot that is naturally moist but freely drained with the extra pres-
ence of rocks. A few species occupy stable scree communities in the alpine
zone, and one in particular is occasionally offered in horticulture and is
248 CHAPTER FIVE

certainly worth looking out for. It is C. purpureifolium., very easily distin-

guished from its close relatives by the reddish to purple undersides of the
foliage. The flowers are sensational; the solitary, nodding, yellow, daisy-
like blooms are more akin to miniature sunflowers just 4 in. (10 cm)
high. Found at altitudes between 12,000 and 16,000 ft. (3660-4880 m)
in western and central Nepal, this species could be grown in a raised bed
dedicated to choice Himalayan alpines, made up of good mineral soil
and a number of carefully placed stones, at least half their depth under
soil. As long as these plants are not allowed to dry out in the summer
they should become established and set good seed, which is the only rec-
ommended means of propagation for this species. These seedlings, too,
resent root disturbance, therefore sowing in situ may be advisable. As
with most of these high alpines, this species flowers in late spring to early
summer.

Cremanthodium purpureifolium, central Nepal j. M. HIRST

 ALPINE ZONE 249

Having just used "sensational," I am not sure which superlative would

best describe Cremanthodium palmatum in all its forms. Found at alti-
tudes in excess of 14,000 ft. (4270 m) in Sikkim and south-eastern Tibet
and enjoying steep scree material, this species's combination of flower
and foliage sets it on a pedestal. Attractive palmate, purple-coloured fo-
liage provides the perfect base for short, 6-in. (15-cm) stems, each bear-
ing a nodding, pink, daisy-like flower. In Sikkim the plant has been
identified as C. palmatum subsp. rhodocephalum. Cultivation should fol-
low the same course as with C. purpureifoUum. Such pleasure is derived
from flowering these alpine species.
In most alpine plant lovers' minds, the name Diapensia conjures up
something rather exclusive and perhaps not growable. Exclusive yes, but
the plants are certainly growable in a trough as I have recommended for
the foregoing species. For all diapensias, a cooler spot on the leeside of a
rock may be advisable to protect the cushions from direct sunlight at the
hottest part of the day. Although closely related to the heathers of the Er-
icaceae, this genus belongs to its own family, Diapensiaceae, which also
includes some other exclusive genera, such as the Japanese Shortia. Dia-
pensia himalaica (synonym D. purpurea) is an exciting plant found from
eastern Nepal, south-eastern Tibet and on into south-western China, no-
tably in north-western Yunnan. In nature it colonises steep banks and
gravelly slopes as well as cushioning rock ledges at altitudes from 12,000
to 14,500 ft. (3660-4420 m) with its glistening mats of minute, ever-
green leaves. In May to June these mats are studded with large rose-pink
flowers. To achieve a well-flowered plant in the garden is a pinnacle of
success. The closely related species D. lapponica, grows well in the garden
of Mike and Polly Stone in Fort Augustus on the west coast of Scotland,
but few of us have the high rainfall and summer humidity they do. They
are able to give these plants full light as well, which is a considerable ad-
vantage for flowering. Most of us can only do our best to imitate these
conditions and with the careful use of water create the cool position such
plants demand.
I try to reassure myself that no one situation is ever absolutely ideal.
What about all the rain that falls when the plants are dormant, necessi-
25O CHAPTER FIVE

tating careful winter cover? What about the moss and liverwort that
threatens to overpower a neat cushion on a trough? What about the curse
of midges which encircle the gardener early in the morning or in the
evening, attempting to kill our joy in the ability to grow and flower the
plants most people only dream about.
Seed of Diapensia himalaica is occasionally offered, and as with many
high Himalayan alpines, great success has been achieved by starting such
plants in dried and rehydrated sphagnum moss. My predecessor at
Edrom Nurseries, Alex Duguid, successfully pioneered this method, tak-
ing into account the fact that when wet, sphagnum holds up to twenty
times its own weight in water. The main reason that seed fails to germi-
nate or does so inconsistently is due to drying out. The immediate benefit
of this natural material is clear, and the technique is covered in more de-
tail in Chapter 6. Once the seed has germinated, leave the seedlings to
establish for another year in the seed pot, perhaps giving them a weak
feed to hearten them. When pricking out subjects with extra fine roots
such as this diapensia, soaking the seedlings in water to loosen the com-
post will make it easy to separate the seedlings. Place them in a cool
shaded frame and at no time allow them to dry out or cook. The reward
for this extra care is a well-grown plant of a challenging Himalayan sub-
ject soon to flower—few greater rewards could there be.
Closely related but generally assigned to Ericaceae is another Himala-
yan treasure, Diplarche multiflora., found in eastern Nepal and south-east-
ern Tibet at similar altitudes to the diapensia. Ludlow and Sherriff often
encountered it on avalanche slopes. This species is often described as the
nearest approach to a heath to be found in the Himalaya. It forms mats
of densely leafy, wiry stems each terminating with a lovely, tight globose
head of pink flowers. Though this treasure is not yet available in horti-
culture, should seed be offered it may be treated in the same way as for
the diapensia.
From Nepal, which is the main state within the vast Himalayan range,
come many local treasures, some of which will be photographed and
looked upon with respect and the knowledge that their collection, by
whatever means, is fraught with high risks and little prospect of cultivat-
ing them anywhere else in the world. Always, of course, someone will
 ALPINE ZONE 251

achieve the seemingly impossible, but how much better to concentrate

efforts on plants that we have an honest chance of giving a good home.
Amongst the high alpine plants, an extreme challenge is to be met with
the woolly Chionocharis hookeri; the Himalayan version ofEritrichium
nanum; the intriguing Oreosolen wattii, a member of the Scrophulariaceae
with tubular yellow flowers; and finally Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica. This
last species defies pronunciation and the botanist and taxonomist Jafri,
who named it, must surely have had tongue in cheek while doing so. It is
though, a choice member of the crucifer family, Cruciferae, producing a
basal rosette of leaves and a mass of short-stalked white flowers. It occu-
pies screes at high altitudes up to 14,500 ft. (4420 m) in central Nepal.
I have always felt that Eriophyton wallichii., a member of the Labiatae,
could be grown successfully in a stoney mix on a raised bed. Growing in
scree, flowering a little later in the season and appearing from western
Nepal across to south-western China, it forms a dwarf, woolly plant with
rounded over-lapping leaves and whorls of wine-red to pale purple flow-
ers. As with other members of this family, seed will provide the best
means of propagation. I have not yet grown this plant, however, and sus-
pect that when grown and flowered it will bear little resemblance to the
wonderful pictures often seen of it in its native haunts, dripping wet with
monsoon droplets.
Another awkward name to cope with is Gueldenstaedtia himalaica, a
classic Himalayan subject often seen growing on grassy slopes amongst
soldanelloid primulas such as Primula wigmmiana. A member of the pea
family, Leguminosae, it is found throughout the Himalaya at high alti-
tude forming mats of silky-haired leaves and producing showy mauve to
red flowers, like those of a pea plant, on short stems. Since the deep roots
are seemingly impossible to trace, gardeners hope that seed will be col-
lected to assure this alpine treasure a good home in an open spot on the
raised bed.
The composite or daisy family, Compositae, comprises many good
alpine genera, several species of which feature amongst the very choicest
found in the Himalaya. Besides those of Cremanthodium., which I have al-
ready covered, these species come from the genera Aster, Leontopodium,
Saussurea, Tanacetum and Waldheimia.
252 CHAPTER FIVE

Aster flaccidus is at its best at high altitudes in screes throughout the

Himalaya where it produces typical clasping foliage above the basal leaves
over which sits a huge mauve daisy on a short 1- to 3-in. (2.5- to 8-cm)
stem. Maintaining this habit in the garden can be met by planting it be-
tween stones on the raised bed.

Eriophyton wattichii, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 253

Edelweiss, Leontopodium, is one of the classic alpine plants of Euro-

pean fame, but much more spectacular and dainty are some of the species
found in the high Himalaya. Of these, L. monocephalum must rank as one
of the finest, a mat-forming, woolly plant of the high screes, found at
18,000 ft. (5490 m). Its formL. monocephalum var. evax from eastern Ne-
pal has lower leaves of silvery colour and stunning yellow, woolly in-
volucral leaves, those just below the flowers. Although I have raised and
flowered it from seed, I have not brought out its true habit. In future I
will grow it in a lean, stoney environment on a raised bed and hope that
it will settle into its tighter character. When seed is set, harvest and sow it
right away for the best means of propagation.
The genus Saussurea contains some of the most bizarre of all Himala-
yan alpines. The finest examples need much attention to detail if they are
to grow successfully in the garden, let alone flower. Three notable spe-

Leontopodium monocepkalum var. wax, Barun, eastern Nepal

GEORGE SMITH
254 CHAPTER FIVE

cies are S. gossypiphont, S. simpsoniana and S. tridactyla. They are often

found on screes up to 18,000 ft. (5490 m), flowering from July to Sep-
tember in nature. When seed is collected and made available, sow it in-
dividually in deep, cellular trays of a loam-based seed compost. The seeds
should be covered with the customary gritty sand and kept cool until ger-
mination. Once the seedlings have grown into small plants, preferably
early in the second year, they can be planted out in the raised bed or rock
garden designed with a good depth of lime-free mineral soil and gravel
mixed with small and medium-sized stones. Initially the plants will re-
semble any other composite genus, with dandelion-like leaves.

Saussureagossypiphom, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 255

The next stage, awaiting the flowers, takes patience and care. The
plants will send down deep taproots, so a deep, cool root-run is essen-
tial. The flower-heads are usually purple, but in the case of these high
alpine species, they are densely embedded with white woolly hairs. The
ripe seeds can be removed by opening up the protective woolly cover-
ing, which will allow the seed to disperse naturally. Although highly de-
sirable, these species remain a serious challenge.
The more amenable Saussurea obvallata is found in eastern Nepal and
Sikkim on rocky slopes. It may prove a little large for a raised bed but
would accompany the larger cremanthodiums and Rheum nobile in the
ravine garden. This one, rather than having wool-covered flowers, utilises
large boat-shaped bracts, translucent and conspicuously veined. The
flowering stem may attain some 12-18 in. (30-46 cm).
The two final Himalayan genera within the daisy family are Tanace-
tum and Waldheimia. Amongst the tansies, one choice species is well
worth growing. It is T. gossypinum, a typical scree-loving species found
from central Nepal to Bhutan. It forms white, woolly cushions of dense
rosettes from which arise yellow flower-heads on short stems. The chal-
lenge is to maintain this tight woolly habit in the garden. The raised bed
should suit this species along with the several members of Waldheimia
also frequenting screes throughout the Himalaya. Three very desirable
species may be offered from seed-collecting trips: W.^labra, W. tomen-
tosa and W. stolitzkae. Each of the species is spreading, mat-forming and
made up of small, woolly rosettes which produce a mass of solitary,
short-stemmed daisy-like flowers, rose-pink or white in colour. As with
all these scree plants the raised-bed conditions should suit admirably for
these waldheimias, with seed a viable means of propagation, sown as
soon as it is harvested.
The genus Potentilla plays an important role in the garden, whether as
free-flowering shrubs or herbaceous plants. A few alpine species merit
our consideration, two of which are rarely seen in gardens and deserve
pride of place on a trough or raised bed. Both P. microphylla and P. co-
riandrifolia may be found in central Nepal at high altitude amongst rocks
and on open grassy slopes. Their range is widespread in the Himalaya,
256 CHAPTER FIVE

reaching heights of 13,500 ft. (4120 m). Potentilla microphylla is a choice

dwarf, tufted cushion or mat-forming plant with dark green, pinnate
leaves with numerous leaflets. The flowers are generally large, solitary
and yellow on short stems. A well-flowered mat of this species is a sight
to behold on a raised bed with full light. Closely related and equally ex-
quisite is Potentilla biflora., another species widespread across the Hima-
laya yet rarely seen in gardens. This one also forms lush cushions of tiny
palmate leaves and huge yellow flowers. Potentilla coriandrifolia is of a
similar, mat-forming habit but in this case displays very showy, pure
white flowers with reddish centers. All these potentillas can be propa-
gated from seed, but sadly they are rarely offered. Hopefully the seed col-
lectors in Nepal will not overlook them in the future.
The true Potentilla eriocarpa is a choice species found over a wide area
from Pakistan across the Himalaya into south-western China inhabiting
rocks and stony slopes at heights up to 15,000 ft. (4580 m). In horticul-
ture it is often confused with P. cuneata, the spreading species, while P.
eriocarpa has woody stems emanating from a central root stock and in na-
ture has a tendency to hang down over rocks. Plants are best positioned
to trail over the edge of the raised bed. Bright yellow flowers are plenti-
ful at a useful time in the summer when other colour is less forthcoming.
Alpine willows of the genus Salix are always a great asset in the rock
garden or, when dwarf enough, also in the raised bed. An outstanding
species encountered on alpine slopes throughout the Himalaya, notably
in Nepal, is S. calyculata., found at altitudes up to 14,000 ft. (4270 m)
where it forms a low, creeping shrublet with shiny, hairless leaves and
reddish stems. As is customary with willows, the flowers are unisexual.
This species, one of the finest of all alpine willows, has catkins bright red
in colour. It is easily grown and, again, is best situated where it can hang
over the corner of the raised bed.
A plant of immense beauty and sadly all too rarely seen in gardens is
Trigonotis rotundifolia, a member of the borage family, Boraginaceae, and
closely related toMyosotis. This species is found on rock ledges and screes
at around 12,000 to 15,000 ft. (3660-4580 m). In 1998 the Taylors of
Invergowrie came across this attractive subject growing as large patches
 ALPINE ZONE 257

of blue amongst tumbled boulders under the north-eastern ridge of the

Rhotang Pass in north-western India. Wide mats of rounded foliage are
an attractive base for the terminal clusters of bright blue, yellow-eyed
flowers held on short stems. Choose a cool position between rocks on
the raised bed with maximum light to encourage flowering during the
summer months.

Salix calyculata, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

258 CHAPTER FIVE

Saxifraga
Saxifmga is amongst the most important of all the alpine genera to be
found in the Himalaya. Only since the late 1990s has more become
known of them. With more than eighty species found in the true Hima-
laya, excluding China, I have had to make a balanced choice to highlight
the best known as well as the most garden worthy and attractive flower-
ing plants.
Undoubtedly the plants of section Kabschia (Porophyllum), character-
ised by plants with lime-encrusted foliage, are the most popular of the
alpine saxifrages. It is important though, not to overlook from other sec-
tions the many green cushion-forming subjects as well as ones with taller
flower stems, all valuable garden plants. The following four species have
attractive flowers over green cushions or basal rosettes of foliage.
Saxifrq0a caveana would be anyone's first choice and is occasionally
offered from seed expeditions. Occupying screes and stony slopes be-
tween 13,500 and 16,000 ft. (4120-4880 m) across the Himalaya, it forms
dwarf, tufted cushions with small, leathery leaves in which the large yel-
low flowers nestle. A cool position should be chosen avoiding the full
heat of the sun.
Saxifraga jacquemontiana is equally widespread but enjoys stony slopes
in drier areas. It forms a hard mat made up of crowded rosettes. The yel-
low flowers protrude just beyond the foliage making this a wonderful
sight in the summer.
Two unusual species which would be exciting introductions worth
looking out for are Saxifraga lychnitis and S. nutans. The first species is
rather rare and would be a wonderful plant for a cool spot on the raised
bed. More often seen in the western Himalaya, it occupies gravelly areas
and produces a basal rosette of leaves in a deep green with red edges. The
nodding, golden yellow flowers with hairy maroon calyces are most at-
tractive. Similar is S. nutans, found farther east from central Nepal into
south-western China. This species is densely glandular, making it dis-
tinct, producing 6-in. (15-cm) stems carrying up to nine nodding yel-
low flowers in a cluster with dark red calyces. These high Himalayan sax-
ifrages require cool conditions and cannot dry out while in growth. They
 ALPINE ZONE 259

may be propagated by seed and should not be overlooked in favour of

the more famous kabschia types.
More than twenty-five species of the section Kabschia of Saxifraga are
relevant to this title. I would like to extol the virtues of just ten in the
hope that these will more than whet the appetites of keen alpine garden-
ers. At shows of both the Alpine Garden Society and the Scottish Rock
Garden Club in the spring months across the length and breadth of
Britain, very often the large pans of Himalayan saxifrages steal the show.
Such pans can be grown successfully for exhibiting either in a cool frame
or the alpine house but must be given close attention to detail. This
would include turning the pan to ensure even flowering and removing
dead or decaying rosettes, aborted flowers and any parts of the plant even

Saxifragct caveana, central Nepal J. M. HIRST

260 CHAPTER FIVE

just possibly affected by pests or diseases. While always marvelling at the

plants that win the Farrer and Forrest medals, the best-in-show awards,
I wonder what joy these plants would give if they were grown on a raised
bed or trough in the garden rather than the somewhat more artificial
scene under glass. One fact to be sure of is that much is to be learnt by ob-
serving these wonderfully grown plants at the shows, and we owe much
to the keen exhibitors who give us a glimpse of their work. Their measure
of success must be balanced against the worry that such plants may suc-
cumb more easily to overheat or ravages of pests and diseases that are
more commonly found under glass than in the open garden.
When these saxifrages are grown out in the open they are best posi-
tioned in a trough or raised bed and given winter cover, not because of
dubious hardiness but to protect them from excessive wet and to enhance

Saxifragajacquemontiana, Langtang, central Nepal DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 261

the lime-encrusted cushions. The soil must be well-drained yet typically

moisture retentive, and in most cases the cushions respond well to being
wedged between stones. Most Himalayan species are lime-hating and a
few will not tolerate full sun, at least not on the east coast of Scotland,
most notably those akin to the European species Saxifrqga oppositifolia,
including S. lowndesii and S. poluniniana. Saxifrqga lowndesii is a species
local to central Nepal found amongst wet rocks on steep hillsides at ele-
vations of around 13,000 ft. (3970 m). Lowndes found it in 1950 on
only one site, the Sabsche Khola. It bears a superficial likeness to a com-
pact-growing S. oppositifolia., forming a lax cushion producing large rose-
lilac-coloured flowers. This is a fine plant for a trough situated in a
slightly shaded situation. The same spot will suit the more easily culti-
vated S. poluniniana, found in western and central Nepal occupying crev-
ices of vertical rock, often beside running water in dappled shade at ele-
vations between 11,000 and 11,500 ft. (3360-3510 m). It forms a lax
mat with pale green foliage and short-stalked, white, pink-flushed flowers
in the spring. A well-flowered cushion tucked between rocks on a trough

Saxifraga lowndesii, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

262 CHAPTER FIVE

is a memorable sight, but I have found the plant to be intolerant of sum-

mer heat and direct sunlight. Both these species should set seed, provid-
ing a means of propagation until cushions are large enough to give cut-
ting material. Cuttings taken after flowering easily may be rooted in a
mixture of sand and perlite.
Two splendid species which meet at high altitudes in central Nepal,
particularly in the Hidden Valley and the Kali Gandaki, are Saxifraga an-
dersonii and S. hypostoma. These plants are found at altitudes of around
16,500 ft. (5030 m). Saxifra0a andersonii grows in profusion in the flat
beds of glacial streams, preferring flat ground amongst stones in a gritty,
sandy loam, growing cheek by jowl with species of Saussureaandan-dr
drosace. This is a dense-cushion-forming plant made up of many lime-en-
crusted rosettes and short, compact, terminal clusters of up to five white
flowers. It is a fine, uncomplicated plant now well established in cultiva-

onii, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 263

tion. The species S. hypostoma may be less known but is no more demand-
ing when planted in a trough amongst stones in gritty loam and given
plenty of water in summer. It is often found in vertical, north-facing crev-
ices where it forms both large and small cushions. Very fine examples are
reported in the upper Marsyandi Valley where it forms iron-hard buns
hidden by the stemless white flowers.
Two of my favourite species which must rank amongst the best of all
late-twentieth-century introductions from Nepal are Saxifmga stolitzkae
and S. rhodopetald. Saxifrqga stolitzkae was introduced by George Smith
from a batch of wild-collected seed from the Kali Gandaki region in
1970. While similar to S. andersonii, it may be distinguished by its rela-
tively short flower scape, its large white flowers and its tight cushion
habit. On the other hand, the two species are so alike that if it were pos-
sible for a comprehensive botanical field study to be carried out in central
Nepal in this area rich with Saxifraga species, one variable species may
well result.
Saxifrqga rhodopetala., as the name suggests, is a wonderful break from
the majority of white-flowered kabschia species found in the Himalaya.
This one produces two to six deep-pink, maroon-centred flowers borne
on a short-stalked, flat-topped cluster. Again the habit is similar to S. an-
dersonii, forming a steeply domed, hard cushion. Seed was introduced
from a side valley off the Marsyandi in central Nepal at around 13,000 ft.
(3970 m). It flowers in the garden over a long period in April to early
May.
Further evidence of the as yet undetermined distribution of many of
these saxifrages is the material grown today under the name Saxifrqga
divorum. I suspect it is a variant of another species growing in a different
geographical area. This species was found by Ludlow and Sherriff in
Bhutan in 1937. It is a very desirable species now grown from material
collected by both Smith and McBeath in Nepal. It is a slower-growing
plant producing a fine cushion and a dense cyme of eight to ten white
flowers, pink in bud and with attractive red anthers.
Three further species of Saxifrqpfa are gradually becoming better
known. Saxifraga alpigena, S. cinerea and S. pulvinaria may all be grown
quite satisfactorily in the garden, given a little shade during the summer
264 CHAPTER FIVE

months. Saxifra/ja alpigena was introduced by George Smith in the

1970s from the Barun Khola in eastern Nepal. It may be found at alti-
tudes up to 13,700 ft. (4180 m) in river shingle or on rock outcrops on
steep hillsides where it forms flat cushions and short stems bearing soli-
tary white flowers up to l/2 in. (1 cm) across with attractive anthers of
purple to deep pink. The plants must not, on any account, be exposed to
scorch from the summer heat. Saxifraga, cinerea is different from its allies
in that it resembles the European encrusted species, producing neat cush-
ions made up of large rosettes and short flowering stems carrying cymes
of three to six flowers purest white in colour. This is one of the lesser-
known Nepalese species and is certainly worth searching for. And Sax-
ifrqgapulvinaria (synonym S. imbricata) may be located amongst rocks
and stony slopes from Kashmir across into eastern Nepal at elevations
around 16,000 ft. (4880 m). In nature it may form wide cushions up to
18 in. (46 cm) across made up of many tiny rosettes. The stemless, soli-
tary flowers are white with yellow bases and violet anthers.
No doubt the coming years will bring several exciting new saxifrages
to our gardens. Surely our reading of species existing in the wild and as
yet not in commerce behooves us to support legitimate expeditions into
the Himalaya to search them out.

Meconopsis
The genus Meconopsis has very few species represented at this high alpine
level. Most species have a greater presence in the subalpine zone and have
been discussed in Chapter 4. The four species highlighted in the alpine
zone are.M. horridula., M. distigem., M. delavayi andAf. bella.
I hope above all that dividing the plant coverage into distinct altitu-
dinal and ecological zones has clarified where particular species should
be planted in the garden. Of course sometimes the zones seem to overlap,
and I admit to describing one plant or another in a particular chapter
under one zone when it could well have fitted elsewhere. The importance
of understanding these altitudinal guidelines, though, is apparent when
we look at these Meconopsis species. In each case an examination of the
root system will identify the substrate the species has been used to grow-
 ALPINE ZONE 265

ing in and will indicate what it requires for growth in the lowland garden.
Not observing these requirements will lead to inevitable failure. For ex-
ample, I would generally recommend plantingMeconopsis species in a bed
rich in humus with plenty of summer moisture, or others I would give a
position in the peat bed. The danger is that we lump all Meconopsis species
together and unwittingly place them all in the peat bed. Such generalis-
ing would prove disastrous for these high alpine species.
For years I have looked on in awe at slides and pictures of Meconopsis
horridula tucked between boulders on scree at high altitudes in Nepal. It
is found throughout the Himalaya at elevations up to 18,000 ft. (5490
m). The flowers seem to be borne on short spikes or sometimes on
leafless stems arising from the rootstock, no more than a few inches in
height. The electric blue of the flowers is often so stunning, though they
also take pale blue to turquoise colours. I have grown this species suc-
cessfully, but one thing I can consistently report is that the flower colour
has not been as I have seen in the pictures. What am I doing wrong? I
have never planted them in a scree, which I must try soon. Of course,
many forms in nature are typified by taller spikes up to several feet high
with purple-coloured flowers. The leaves and stems are covered with
sharp, bristly spines (hence the species name) which may be brightly
coloured yellow or purple. I have not found this species to be 100 per-
cent monocarpic, or dying after it has flowered. It is sometimes biennial
and at other times even lives a further year after flowering. We can cer-
tainly treat it as a biennial, flowering for a second year and then dying. It
forms a deep taproot, and if it is allowed to penetrate into cool quarters
between stones it may persist and flower again. Even if simply mono-
carpic, it will set plenty of seed to enable a means of propagation.
Requiring similar treatment as Meconopsis horridula but significantly
more tricky to grow is M. discigera. As yet, it is not fully understood due
to the paucity of field notes. Its distribution appears to extend from west-
ern Nepal across to Sikkim and south-eastern Tibet. Its flower colour is
generally a lemon-yellow, although Taylor states that it may also be blue,
purple or red. A monocarpic species, requiring up to four years to flower,
it dies back to a fairly large resting bud, nestling amongst the decayed fo-
liage until reaching flowering size. At flowering, the rosette may assume
266 CHAPTER FIVE

7-8 in. (18-20 cm) across, developing a flowering spike up to 18 in. (46
cm) in height with up to twenty flowers which open from the top, each
held on short pedicels. One of the main identifying features is the flat
disc-like extension at the base of the style, covering the top of the ovary
or fruit. A well-grown specimen is certainly something to look forward to
as seed of this species becomes more readily available. For each of these

Meconopsis korridula, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

 ALPINE ZONE 267

four species, the deep taproot determines the need for a freely drained
mixture on the raised bed.
The next species is the highly acdaimedMeconopsis delavayi, introduced
by George Forrest from Lichiang at the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury. Although this part of China does not fall into the designated area
appointed to the Himalaya, it does fall within the extended Sino-Hima-

Meconopsis horridula, Khumbu, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

268 CHAPTER FIVE

Meconopis discigem, eastern Nepal J. M. HIRST

 ALPINE ZONE 269

laya and certainly warrants mention, so great an impact has it made in

horticulture since its reintroduction.
The Lichiang Range forms a chain of craggy limestone peaks, some
rising to 18,000 ft. (5490 m), with many glaciers and deep gorges. The
tree line here lies at about 14,000 ft. (4270 m), and many exciting plants
are found within the woodland zone. This far east the zones may be as-
sessed very differently from those of the high altitudes in Nepal. The

Meconopsis delavayi, Inshriach Alpine Nursery, Aviemore JIM JERMYN

27O CHAPTER FIVE

woodland and meadow zones here in Yunnan almost merge into a band
between 10,000 and 14,000 ft. (3050-4270 m), for rich meadows flow
out amongst Abies., Larix and mixed shrubberies. Without an accurate
measurement of the soil pH in this area, we can assume that the soil is
influenced by the limestone mountains above the meadows. Within this
open terrain the lovely Meconopsis delavayi is found. Perfectly perennial,
the meconopsis forms deciduous clumps of glaucous foliage above a
stout rootstock made of a branching and swollen storage organ with a
main taproot that may extend a good 9-12 in. (23-30 cm) into the soil.
The nodding flowers, borne on leafless scapes, are a glorious deep violet-
blue and sometimes up to eight in total. Within the petals is a lovely boss
of yellow stamens completing this perfect work of creation. Those priv-
ileged to have visited this part of Yunnan in June and July report the rich-
ness of the alpine meadows at about 13,000 ft. (3970 m), full of both
Anemone demissa and A. trullifolia, the bright yellow Trollius acaulis with
flowers over 2 in. (5 cm) across and, yes, hundreds of blooms of Mecon-
opsis delavayi from pale to violet-blue. No wonder Forrest could refer to
this area as the Eldorado for plant hunters.
Growing this species in the garden presents few difficulties as long as
it can have a cool, open site with a deep, mineral soil freely drained but
not subject to drying out. A little alkalinity is not a liability but a dry
chalky soil will not work. After flowering, the plants produce long, nar-
row pods of seed which, when ripe, should be sown right away. I have
found that with these deciduous species it is wise to leave the seedlings a
second year in the seed pan before pricking them out, to enable the little
fleshy rootstock to develop. Once plants have settled down in the gar-
den, either in a specially prepared bed or a deep raised bed amongst
rocks, the side shoots will begin to throw up little plantlets which in time
can be lifted for other locations. This species can also be propagated by
root cuttings, but goodness knows what sort of person would risk such
a thing. I would prefer to put money on England's cricket team winning
a test match than lifting an established plant of the Meconopsis, applying
major surgery to its roots and expecting it to survive.
The fourth species from the Himalayan alpine zone is Meconopsis bella,
most aptly named by the botanist Prain. It is found from central Nepal to
 ALPINE ZONE 271

south-eastern Tibet at altitudes from 11,500 to 16,500 ft. (3510-5030

m) in rock crevices and grassy cliff ledges. Ludlow and Sherriff often en-
countered this exquisite species in Bhutan and Tibet and one day exper-
imented by removing a growing plant from a l-in.-wide (2.5-cm) crack
in a rock face, to reveal a taproot exactly 56 in. (142 cm) in length.
This deciduous perennial species dies back in the autumn and winter
to a resting bud from which emerges in the spring a tuft of basal leaves
which may be entire or pinnately lobed. The flowers are borne singly,

Meconopsis bella, central Nepal j. M. HIRST

272 CHAPTER FIVE

often with several flowers produced from the same rosette in succession.
They are nodding with large petals of superb pale-blue to violet, purple
and pink. The flowers may be disproportionately large, up to 2 in. (5 cm)
across resting on a short 4-in. (10-cm) stem.
A horrible dilemma threatens to ravage all such precious plants in-
dudingMeconopsis delavayi and M. bella. It is the ubiquitous and wretched
little slug. I say "little" because in my experience the big ones tend to lurk
around big game, leaving the little ones, which can easily be missed, to
devour the delicacies of such treasures as meconopses. I am afraid I resort
to the employment of slug pellets which can be administered so as to pre-
vent harmless creatures from obtaining them.
If we are lucky enough to obtain plants or seed of Meconopsis bella, the
ideal position for plants is a cool, half-shaded raised bed between deeply
anchored rocks. As with the majority of Meconopsis species, this one can
be propagated from seed but is difficult. As far as this operation is con-
cerned, particularly in raising this species, follow the instructions cov-
ered under "seed-raising" in Chapter 6 and good luck.

Gentiana
A genus making a major impact within this alpine zone is Gentiana. The
gentians found at these high altitudes are quite varied, and placing them
in their various botanical sections, as listed for the meadow species in
Chapter 4, makes identifying them easier and clarifies their needs.
From the species in the section Kudoa we may expect the best results,
as some of them prove easier to cultivate. As a general rule we may safely
assume that these plants prefer to be grown in the open garden in a ded-
icated bed, a raised bed proving ideal for most of them.
Gentiana ornata is a classic Himalayan alpine plant, sadly rarely seen in
gardens today despite its relative ease of culture and common occurrence
in central Nepal. Early October is the best time to enjoy this particular
gentian in nature, when trekking is made all the more enjoyable without
the monsoon rains. The plants grow on open grassy slopes between
11,800 and 18,000 ft. (3400-5490 m), ranging from central Nepal to
Sikkim, Bhutan and southern Tibet. They often grow in abundance
 ALPINE ZONE 273

showing a considerable amount of variation in form, size and flower col-

our. Above Gosainkund Lake, this species grows together with the lovely
G. depressa.
Typically Gentiana ornata forms a low, matted plant with short, spread-
ing stems up to 4 in. (10 cm) long, each terminating with solitary, widely
bell-shaped, sky-blue flowers, including a full range of blue and white
colours in some areas. When given full light and a moisture-retentive,
acid soil this species has proved an easy gentian to grow, with most of
the stock emanating from material collected by George Smith in Nepal.
At no time during the growing season will this gentian or the other Hi-
malayan species tolerate drying out.
A species encountered at high levels from the Indian Uttar Pradesh
across to central Nepal is Gentiana stipitata. This is a fairly distinct sub-
ject, producing a tufted rosette with a few short spreading stems. The
flowers are tubular in shape generally pale blue to mauve in colour with

Gentiana ornatu, Barun, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

274 CHAPTER FIVE

darker lines inside the tube. It prefers stony slopes at elevations between
11,800 and 14,700 ft. (3400-4480 m). Henry and Margaret Taylor
spotted the western form, G. stipitata subsp. tizuensis, growing in large
numbers on dry, turfy ridges on the Nalgan Pass in the Kinnaur region of
north-western India. In its dwarfer stature the blue-purple flowers rest
on short stems so that the whole plant is only a few inches tall. Both
forms of this species should be happy on a raised bed.
One of the most prized species belonging to this section is Gentiana
georgei commemorating collector George Forrest who first discovered
the species in 1906. He found it in the Lichiang range at around 11,000
to 12,000 ft. (3360-3660 m) in open meadows and on stony calcareous
slopes. It was collected and successfully introduced by Kingdon Ward in
the early 1930s. This plant is reminiscent of the well-known European G.
acaulis, forming basal rosettes with sharply pointed foliage up to 3 in. (8
cm) in length. The flowers are terminal and solitary, varying consider-
ably in colour from dark purple through lavender-blue and often heavily
spotted dark purple within. Since it was first discovered, those who have
encountered it in nature and have been fortunate enough to raise it in
cultivation all say G. georgei is the finest gentian ever to be introduced.
Indeed, therefore, how important it is to secure further seed collections.
Sadly, it tends to flower very late in the season, which makes collecting vi-
able seed before the winter snows return very difficult. It remains,
though, a good perennial producing a short taproot. Having a native
habitat in stable screes at altitudes as high as 15,000 ft. (4580 m), it re-
quires a dedicated position in the garden on a raised bed in full sun.
Dolomite stones with a rich mineral soil should suit it well, along with
plentiful summer moisture at the root.
Two species found in commerce from time to time following success-
ful seed-collecting trips to the Himalaya are Gentiana obconica and G. me-
iantha. Both of these species are distinct yet may prove to be subspecies
of already well-recognised taxa. Gentiana obconica was supposedly col-
lected in the early 1990s on a trip to north-western Yunnan and is gen-
erally found in alpine meadows in south-eastern Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim
and eastern Nepal. The material in cultivation seems to be somewhat in-
termediate between G. obconica and G. caelestis, a lovely little gentian with
 ALPINE ZONE 275

neat rosettes and small flowers of variable colour but generally deep blue.
Gentiana meiantha may be found as a local species in eastern Nepal and
Sikkim, forming a distinct overwintering cluster of young shoots and
flowers more tubular in shape than G. ornata.
The section Frigida contains two species both widely distributed in
nature yet sadly not frequently encountered in horticulture. Gentiana nu-
bigena and G. himalayaensis are closely allied to G. algida,, a well-known
species with a very wide distribution including North America, Japan
and Siberia. Both G. nubigena and G. himalayaensis form short rhizomes
with basal leaves in the form of several erect rosettes. The sessile, or stalk-
less, flowers are dark blue to purple with a creamy-coloured base and
dark blue streaks. Gentiana nubigena is frequently seen in Nepal at high
altitudes between 16,000 and 18,000 ft. (4880-5490 m) in alpine mead-
ows, while G. himalayaensis is found at elevations between 13,000 and
13,700 ft. (3970-4180 m) in south-eastern Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim and
eastern Nepal. Both species should be easy to raise from seed and may
be cultivated in a raised bed amongst stones in an acid substrate.
One important Himalayan species belonging to the section Pneumo-
nanthe is Gentiana cachemirica (synonym G. loderi). This attractive plant
is found from Pakistan across into Kashmir at altitudes up to 13,000 ft.
(3970 m) always amongst rocks. I have had no difficulty growing this
species but have failed to experience a seed set. It forms a rosette from
which spread several stems up to 6 in. (15 cm) in length bearing up to
three pale blue, funnel-shaped flowers with toothed plicae. This is a very
desirable plant which I have found grows best when tucked between
rocks in a trough in full sun.
One of the most exciting species to be found in Nepal is Gentiana phyl-
kcalyx, the single member of the section Phyllocalyx. It may be found on
open, grassy slopes sometimes amongst rhododendrons at elevations up
to 18,000 ft. (5490 m). This plant reminds me of the European G. alpina
with more ovate or rounded leaves. It forms a rosette of basal leaves and
three to five pairs of stem leaves surrounding the sessile and solitary
flower held erect, a striking deep blue tubular trumpet, a little inflated in
the centre. I grew this plant successfully for a while until I neglected its
needs for water during a critical spell and lost it. It should grow well in a
276 CHAPTER FIVE

cool position in a deep trough or raised bed and may be raised from seed
collected after it flowers in midsummer.
The section Isomeria is the largest and most exciting in many respects,
yet its species are rather exacting in their requirements. These species typ-
ically occur at high altitudes in scree and produce creeping stolons with
sessile flowers. I cannot overemphasise that these species require a special
position in the garden that is open yet cool with a good depth of freely
drained soil. The bed should include stones in varying sizes where the
creeping roots may find refuge and anchorage. At no time during the
summer months should these gentian species be allowed to dry out;
therefore, it would be wise to install an irrigation system to ensure a good
soaking last thing at night.
The most frequently encountered species of the section Isomeria is
Gentiana, tubiflora, found from the Himachal Pradesh through Nepal to
south-eastern Tibet on screes and open grassy slopes from 13,000 to
16,000 ft. (3970-4880 m). When gentian lovers travel to the mountains,
whether the Himalaya, the Rockies or the European Alps, they encounter
nothing more frustrating than finding their favourite flowers with petals
tightly closed due to the lack of sunlight or warmth. They know that if
only the cloud would lift to reveal the sun the sights to behold would be
breathtaking. This frustration is well known to us who have exhibited
gentians at flower shows, particularly the autumn varieties, only to see
the beautiful blooms closed tightly during the time of judging. Many
who have seen G. tubiflora in nature have found it similarly reluctant to
open its narrow tubular flowers. When it does it is rather akin to G. pro-
lata., solitary deep blue and unspotted. It is an attractive tufted, cushion-
forming plant with rosettes up to1/2in. (1 cm) across, deserving its pop-
ularity and growing well in a sunny bed with an acid soil. It may be
propagated by seed.
Several species have been relocated since the late 1990s but need great
skill to be collected. Gentiana amplicrater and G.gilvostriata are two beau-
tiful species seen in the Tsari district of south-eastern Tibet. Both grow in
unique plant communities formed on grassy hummocks of rich mineral
soil.
 ALPINE ZONE 277

Gentiana amplicrater produces a rosette with stolons and short, leafy

flower stems carrying up to four flowers of a lovely blue-purple with a
pale green base and dark blue stripes. As it becomes better known and
hopefully gets a hold in cultivation, this species surely will prove a spec-
tacular introduction. It first was introduced by Ludlow and Sherriff with
the number L.S. 9077 from south-eastern Tibet during the years of
WWII but persisted only fleetingly. Andrew Harley of Devonhall in
Perthshire obtained some of the original material and was able to grow it
well, however, describing it as a "magnificent plant."
Certainly very special is Gentianagilvostriata. Jack Drake once told me
the story of an occasion when he was being shown around a large gar-
den by a prominent horticulturist who was extolling the virtues of a fine
stand of G. sino-ornata. While all others present were in awe of this gen-
tian, Drake was completely distracted by a small plant of another species,
quite the most beautiful he had ever seen. It was G. gilvostriata. This spe-
cies was found by Kingdon Ward in Upper Burma near the Tibetan bor-
der and by Ludlow and Sherriff in south-eastern Tibet where it grew in
abundance at the edge of a coniferous forest at 12,500 ft. (3810 m). It is
a tufted species with short prostrate branches ending in a small rosette
and short flowering stems each bearing a solitary flower. The large, sky-
blue trumpets are paler within with brownish-purple bands on the out-
side. For a decade at least after its introduction, this plant was grown suc-
cessfully with few difficulties, but it has since died out of horticulture.
Maybe it produced little in the way of seed, which is so often the cause of
a species's gradual dwindling and subsequent loss to cultivation. This one
was relocated in south-eastern Tibet on a 1999 expedition to Tsari, and
we may soon have another chance to cultivate this wonderful plant.
A distinctive plant sometimes found in eastern Nepal is the lovely Gen-
tiana elwesii growing in open, grassy or scrubby slopes. It produces stems
up to 3 to 9 in. (8-23 cm) in length from elliptic basal leaves. The flowers
are held on a terminal head, a stunning deep violet-blue above and white
below. If seed could be obtained of this rarely grown subject it would
prove an exciting addition to the raised bed.
The greater knowledge of Sino-Himalayan plants gained as a result of
278 CHAPTER FIVE

late-twentieth-century expeditions to north-western Yunnan has led to

heightened expectations of finding further Gentian species to be brought
into cultivation. These expeditions have also heightened our awareness of
their garden requirements relative to the habitat in which they have been
found growing. One species we are looking forward to is Gentiana
wardii., distributed from south-eastern Tibet into south-western Sichuan

Gentiana dwesii, Barun, eastern Nepal GEORGE SMITH

 ALPINE ZONE 279

and north-western Yunnan. Its flowers look rather similar to G. phylloca-

lyx, upright and more or less stemless, emerging from a congested ro-
sette of lime-green foliage. This would prove to be a wonderful addition
for the trough or raised bed.
One of the most sought after of all truly Himalayan alpine species is
Gentiana, depressa., and it is fortunately widely available in horticulture.
While demanding great care, this is the choicest species that most read-
ers could succeed with in a variety of locations, particularly as it has no in-
tolerance of sunshine. In the changing climate on the east coast of Scot-
land, when the sun does shine it combines a greater intensity with an
extreme heat, burning human skin more easily and scorching plants to
death. Some high alpines, as long as their roots are well down in a cool
protective area of stones, seem to enjoy this exposure, finding it like their
native habitat, and flower more profusely. Gentiana depressa fits into this
category yet is intolerant of hard frosts, expecting the Himalaya's pro-
tective covering of snow. It may be found from central Nepal to south-

Gentiana depressa, Schachen Garden, southern Germany DIETER SCHACHT

28O CHAPTER FIVE

eastern Tibet enjoying high altitudes between 11,000 and 14,000 ft.
(3360-4270 m). In the Gosainkund area of central Nepal it may be seen
in large colonies growing on short-grass banks and rocky outcrops form-
ing low tufted rosettes with spreading stems that pop up at least 6 in. (15
cm) from the parent plant. The flowers are a most lovely, broadly bell-
shaped structure in a sumptuous pale-blue to greenish blue and occa-
sionally pure white, sitting upright amongst the somewhat glaucous ro-
settes. Some patches will have at least eleven flowers, while in the garden
at home in a rich mineral soil large mats will be covered with flowers, but
significantly weakening the plant as a result. Keep the plant strong by lift-
ing it, teasing it apart, and replanting.
On a trip to the Langtang and Gosainkund areas in the month of Oc-
tober 1995, Ian Christie reported fine flowering colonies of both Gen-
tiana depress^ and G. ornata with positive sightings of hybrids between
the two species. He noted immense activity of large bumble bees pass-
ing from one species to another, making hybridisation not surprising.
Offspring of these two species does represent an intra-sectional cross. It
shows the very close relationship these plants share in their ancestry as
within other large, varied genera like Primula which also has a history of
intra-sectional hybrids. Most keen alpine growers favour growing G. de-
pressa in pans, and no doubt the ability to exhibit by growing plants in
this way is a clear advantage, but no finer sight is there than a well-grown
mat of G. depress^, growing on a raised bed amongst rocks and slates with
other associated plants.
My final choice to conclude this section on Gentian^ this chapter on
the alpine zone and the part of this book on recommended plants is
fittingly one of the most distinguished of all Himalayan plants. It is G.
urnuld., which I mentioned at the start of this chapter in reference to
George Smith's exploration and photography in Nepal. Until he began
his travels there, few Britons had explored Nepal or collected plant ma-
terial. Smith added immeasureably to our knowledge with his vast pho-
tographic records which he so willingly shared with others. It may well
be the photographic record of G. urnula, in particular that has so inspired
lovers of high Himalayan alpines to travel there. It is to be found at alti-
tudes between 14,500 and 20,000 ft. (4420-6100 m), nestling down
 ALPINE ZONE 28l

between rocks in stable scree where little else survives. It displays an aus-
tere beauty at an altitude that we as relatively fit humans can safely enjoy
without employing supplementary oxygen. I find the clumps of tightly
overlapping foliage satisfying even without a flower, but added to these
are the solitary, broadly urn-shaped flowers in varying shades of blue with
a slate-grey base to the outside of the petals. Sherriff reported a fine stand
of this gentian growing in loose shale on the Tulung La in south-eastern
Tibet where the flowers were white and streaked with slate-purple.
As to growing the plant, important first of all is to secure strong plant
material either as seed-raised plants or from collected vegetative material.
I have had the pleasure of seeing young plant material thriving in the
open garden on the west side of northern England in a rock garden
where the roots have been set into a mineral soil with added shale. This
garden uses an artificial irrigation system to ensure that the plants will at
no time dry out. I am confident that the plant will thrive there, although
time will tell. I am also confident that should this glorious treasure
choose not only to survive but to thrive and flower, the telephone will
ring and I will pay more than a casual trip to share my friends' experi-
ence. After all, is this not what gardening is all about, accepting chal-
lenges and then sharing our successes with others?
In conclusion I can only say that whatever extra efforts are employed
to research the requirements for a plant we may choose to grow, then the
time spent creating the right home for it will be richly rewarded. Plants
growing on the very roof of the world in such varying conditions ac-
cording to their situation relative to exposure to monsoon or rain
shadow demand attention to detail in horticulture. I hope these chapters
will help gardeners find and create the right home for their favourite
plants.
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER SIX

Propagation

T
HIS CHAPTER on propagation is intended to be an aid for gar-
deners who would like to maintain stocks of their favourite
plants, to guide them through the methods of raising newly ac-
quired seed. The successful propagator must pay very careful attention
to good hygiene, the provision of healthy mother plants and obtaining
the best possible materials for the job.
I have in the preceeding chapters already suggested particular types of
propagation suitable for individual types of plants, so I will not give de-
tailed accounts in this chapter. This is very much a general treatment which
I break down into three sections: division, cuttings and seed-raising.

Division
Division will certainly rank as the simplest method of all, with the newly
formed plants being ready for transplanting immediately. It is the ideal
means of propagation when a gardener requires only a few extra plants.
Often plants need to be rejuvenated for their own well-being. For exam-
ple, Primula whiui, if not lifted periodically and divided, will eventually
lose its vigour and die. This is added reason for the keen gardener to be
aware of this means of regeneration.
Subjects to consider for division are generally those which produce

283
284 CHAPTER SIX

underground lateral roots, notably plants which can produce new

growth from dormant buds, such as some species of Meconopsis. Herba-
ceous plants with this kind of root system such as Bergenia, Iris, Mecon-
opsis and the various species of Primula can be divided very simply.
Division can be carried out in two main periods, either when the
plants are in full growth but flowering has ceased, or during the early
part of the growing season when the roots are just beginning to stir suffi-
ciently to allow the young divisions to take hold in their fresh soil. Gen-
erally for most climates in the northern hemisphere March and early Sep-
tember are the principle months for division.
Perennial meconopses deserve particular mention here because they
have a number of forms. Meconopsisgmndis, M. betonicifolin and the hy-
brid between the two M. xsheldonii should be regularly divided, especially
when planted in drifts in the woodland garden. I have always found early
spring, March or April, the best time to manage this project as the new
vegetative growth is just becoming apparent. Pull away the old decaying
leaves and stems if this was not already done during the winter. Young
greenish brown, hairy buds are beginning to form just above the surface
of the soil. Feel carefully to insert the garden fork without damaging any
shoots, then lift the whole clump. The previous year's flowering crowns
have a hollow stem which can be removed carefully. With the perennial
forms of Meconopsis mentioned above, the flowering shoots die after
flowering to be replaced by several side shoots. The whole clump now
can be loosened and teased apart revealing half a dozen or more strong
plants from a three-year-old clump. These will have roots attached and
should be set aside for replanting in fresh soil or in the same bed enriched
with rotted compost or leaf mould. Should a few smaller side shoots
come away, without roots, set these in a wooden box of soil to develop
roots and be planted out later.
After a plant is divided, the new plantlets require plenty of water. Ig-
noring this need will result in disappointment. Also, solid firming of the
soil when planting is important to reduce the risk of drying out.
Some of the more vigorous forms of Meconopsis grandis., such as M.
George Sherriff Group, produce a number of finger-like lateral shoots
around the base of the clump. These may be severed and again laid out
 PROPAGATION 285

vertically in a box of soil. They can be planted in their final position once
rooted. Each one will mature, to flower in one or two year's time.
This early-season division is really quite straightforward, but dividing
a plant when in full growth is a little more demanding. I will use as an
example this time the petiolarid primulas which may be divided after
flowering in May or later when they make a further set of adventitious
roots in September. The optimum time to divide a congested clump of
Primula whitei is in late spring, April or May. The key to success is en-
suring that the plant is not under stress or undergoing a period of
drought during division. If the plant's strength is in doubt, dig up the
clumps and soak them a few days before dividing. When lifting this prim-
ula do look out, both in the soil and within the roots, for the most awful
pest ravaging plants at present, the vine weevil. Good hygiene is vital for
growing a healthy batch of these primulas. Old, tired, or virused stock

Meconopsis George Sherriff Group, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
286 CHAPTER SIX

should be lifted and burned and replaced with fresh material, if available.
The divisions should be replanted with extra leaf mould, well firmed into
the soil, and watered in to complete the job. A little shading material
placed over newly planted divisions may be wise during the hottest part
of the day.
Another group of plants suitable for division are those which produce
mats or clumps with side rosettes, such as the species ofAndrosace., Saxi-
fraga and Potentilla, and Diapensia himcdaica. After flowering, these
plants form side rosettes which produce adventitious roots. Gently lift
the mat or prise up the rosettes and sever them from the parent plant with
a sharply pointed pair of scissors. These little divisions, or "Irishman's
cuttings," may now be potted up or replanted into an appropriate soil
mix, and take care to ensure they do not dry out. A mature mat of Sax-
ifrctga stolitzkae may produce a number of rooted rosettes around the
perimeter, and this is the best means of propagation. Experience will in-
dicate the best time for tackling this very rewarding operation, but soon
after flowering is generally the best time, allowing a season's growth to
re-establish the divisions.

Cuttings
The two types of cuttings for the Himalayan plants we are endeavouring
to propagate are stem and leaf cuttings. The most important is the stem
cutting, which may be taken from either soft or semi-ripened material.
Softwood cuttings are taken from the new season's growth that has not
yet ripened, and semi-ripened cuttings are taken from the new season's
growth that has ripened by mid- to late summer, July or August. In the
case of softwood cuttings it is crucial that the mother plant is both
healthy and free from stress. The cutting material must be turgid, or full
of sap, before the cuttings are taken.
The next point to consider is where to place the cuttings to give them
the best chance of rooting. Since most readers will neither be running a
nursery nor have a dedicated propagation house for rooting cuttings,
more modest measures will be appropriate. All that is required is a small
cold frame about 4 ft. (1.2 m) square, in this case a cutting frame, con-
 PROPAGATION 287

structed of timber. Situate it in a squarely north-south position if possi-

ble, and slope the "lights," or glass sheets covering the cutting frame, to
have a slight fall to ensure rapid run-off for both rain and internal con-
densation. I strongly recommend ordinary clear glass to give maximum
light. The south side of the cutting frame could be utilised for all sun-
loving and alpine cuttings while the north side can be used for ericaceous
subjects. The design shown in the figure demonstrates the importance of
making the cutting frame air tight. Any ventilation required can be facil-
itated by propping open the lights. High humidity, as much as 80 to 95
percent, is necessary for cuttings to root successfully. Artificial heat, usu-
ally in the form of soil-warming cables, will not be required as we gener-
ally will not need to root cuttings in the winter months, although if a
source of power can be provided safely, a heating system may be a bonus.
The soil base beneath the rooting material must be freely draining, as
a cutting frame requires more water than the average cold frame. A gen-
erous 6 in. (15 cm) of coarse rubble should be the base for the frame—
the frame itself should sit on this drainage layer. Above this drainage layer

The cutting frame

288 CHAPTER SIX

and inside the walls of the frame place a sheet of fine mesh polypropy-
lene netting to prevent the rooting medium from washing into the drain-
age material. On top of this mesh, spread a layer about 3 in. (8 cm) thick
of rooting material, allowing a further 3 in. (8 cm) of headroom for the
cuttings at the lowest part of the frame. The content of the rooting me-
dium, then, will be one of the main factors as to whether the cutting
frame is a success or failure. The main part of the medium should be a
clean, sharp sand, although a whole host of substitutes are on the market
that will work equally well, such as perlite, vermiculite, or pumice. Ian
Christie, who runs a nursery near Kirriemuir in east-central Scotland, en-
joys the huge benefit of a nearby quarry which supplies a sand that I
would say is gold dust in horticultural terms. Completely free from any
clay particles which deem a sand useless for growing plants, this sand may
even be used on its own for rooting all alpine subjects, with the exception
of woody or ericaceous plants. The most difficult subjects will root well
in a fine pumice instead of sand, while I have also found the addition of
perlite, a heat-expanded volcanic rock material of neutral pH with fine
water-retention properties, to give better and stronger root systems.
If the full bed of sand or similar rooting material will provide too
much space for the planned number of cuttings, clean, sterilised pots may
be used. Fill them with the same rooting material and then plunge them
up to their rims into the sand inside the frame. Using pots or shallow
pans in in this way certainly may be advantageous for rooting small cut-
tings such as the saxifrages of the section Kabschia.
When using the whole frame, pack the sand into the corners and firm
it well throughout. This job is best done with a block of wood. Then
water the bed well, and it is ready for the cuttings to be inserted. After in-
serting the cuttings, water them in well with a fine rose so that none are
missed. Close the frame completely, and the following morning damp
down the sand with the rose to supply only a little water in the upper
layer of sand. This will be sufficient for a dull day. Further damping
down is required whenever the surface of the sand takes on a pale col-
our. Shading the cutting frame may be necessary on sunny days to pre-
vent scorching, particularly if no one will be at home during the day, as
is often the case. Too little light, though, will tend to "draw" the cuttings,
 PROPAGATION 289

or encourage them to stretch toward the light, and rooting will be im-
paired.
Construct the frame the same way for ericaceous plants, but it is im-
portant to give it more shade. The rooting mix also should be more acid
and more moisture retentive—ideal would be a 4:1 ratio of sand to
sieved peat or a 1:1:2 mixture of sand, peat and perlite. Each gardener,
though, will surely experiment and find a personal preference.
This more acid and moisture-retentive mix also would be suitable for
the autumn-flowering gentians and Cyananthus species, but the latter
will root well in a sunny aspect. A shaded frame needs less watering, per-
haps half as much as a sunny frame. But also, more shade will ecourage
more moss and liverwort to form. Modern chemicals can be used to com-
bat this problem, but take care to avoid scorching the cuttings. A few
crystals of potassium permanganate sprinkled into every 2-gallon (8-
litre) can of water used on the cuttings will help combat the problem of
moss and liverwort. Again, each individual will find a preferred remedy.
Ventilation should be given only when the outside temperatures rise
to over 70-80°F (21-27°C), and then raise the glass lights only 1 in. (2.5
cm) or so. Once the cuttings have rooted more ventilation may be given
during the day and less shading. The cuttings should be well rooted be-
fore potting up, as they will suffer a severe check if only a few roots have
formed. If left for a while in a pot or a pan the rooted cuttings may be
given a weak, balanced foliar feed at frequent intervals to hold them over
until potting.
A serious pest of the cutting frame, however it has been constructed,
is the fungus gnat or sciarid fly. The tiny, black, two-winged flies may be
seen hopping and flying just above the surface of the rooting medium
and immediately under the glass. The transparent-looking larvae possess
a conspicuous black head and can devastate the roots of plants. While
running my nursery I was able to obtain a chemical which I applied as a
drench to the compost, but once again individuals will have to choose
whatever means possible to control this pest. Just available is a drench
containing the active ingredient imidacloprid.
Let me now highlight a few genera ideally propagated from cuttings.
Bear in mind that many plants covered in this book can be propagated
29O CHAPTER SIX

by this means, and experimenting is a good way to discover the best tim-
ing and methods.
In the discussion in Chapter 4 on subalpine meadow plants I high-
lighted the genus Cyananthus and suggested taking cuttings early in the
spring. These cuttings may be placed in a cutting frame as I have de-
scribed, or a small propagator such as could fit on a wide windowsill, too,
would work perfectly satisfactorily.
The autumn-flowering gentians may also be propagated successfully
from stem cuttings. This method is often utilised to bulk up a particular
clone which is loath to division. The best time to take the cuttings is at
the end of April or early May before the new growth has extended be-
yond 1 in. (2.5 cm) or so and prior to any bud formation. The current
owners of Edrom Nurseries, Terry Hunt and Cath Davis, have made
good use of rooting hormones when propagating by this method and
have employed the proprietary chemical named Synergol to very good
effect. For the gentian cuttings they have diluted the hormone to one-
fourth strength in water, and for woodier subjects one-third strength.
Other genera to propagate by cuttings are Cassiope, Rhododendron,
Daphne, Salix, Saxifraga and Androsace. The woody, ericaceous subjects
such as Cassiope and Rhododendron certainly prefer more peat and perlite
than sand, but perlite, while holding moisture, tends to dry out faster in
my experience than peat and sand. Cuttings of these genera are best taken
in mid- to late summer from semi-ripened, young growth. As with other
subjects it will be necessary to remove the bottom leaves to make a clean
cut just below a node or leaf joint. In the case of daphnes and rhodo-
dendrons I recommend carefully keeping the bottom leaves from touch-
ing the surface of the rooting medium to reduce the risk of fungal attack.
These subjects will root more quickly with a dip in a rooting hormone
such as Synergol.
Leaf cuttings present a different approach, with fewer subjects lending
themselves to this means of propagation. Many of the petiolarid primu-
las can be propagated by this means. Those that root well are Primula
boothii and P. irregularis, although other closely related species may also
root. In the late summer, around August or September in Scotland, I
have found that healthy clumps of these primulas may be lifted in order
 PROPAGATION 291

to get at the base of the leaf petiole, and the leaves when ready will prac-
tically fall away when given a little pressure. The leaves have a long peti-
ole, or stem, with a tiny axillary bud that needs to be evident to effect
successful rooting and regeneration. The best rooting medium is a mix-
ture of sand, peat and perlite in whichever ratio the grower feels is best.
I choose a mix with mainly perlite and peat with just a little sand. The
leaf cuttings should be inserted in the damp rooting medium at an angle
and up to the base of the leaf. Water the cuttings in well, and if using pots
or trays place them in the cutting frame. After several weeks the little ax-
illary bud will produce a plantlet which itself will root. Once established,
the rooted cuttings may be potted up or held in the cutting frame bed or
trays over winter with an occasional liquid feed.

Seed-Raising
I believe raising plants from seed to be the most rewarding and useful of
all means open to gardeners for propagating plants. It is of course the
most natural of processes and has been built into the plants' ingenious
blue print for survival. That we humans can tap into this natural means of
regeneration is surely a great privilege that we should never take for
granted. In this modern world, where greed appears to dominate many
peoples' thinking, plants, whether endangered in nature or not, still are
exploited by being dug up in wholesale numbers to meet the demands
of craving gardeners. This seems extraordinary to me, because with few
exceptions plants can be propagated by seed at specialised nurseries or
laboratories and then disseminated to keen plantsfolk without ever dam-
aging the plant stocks in nature.
To save seed for personal use or for passing it on to others, begin by
collecting the seed pods or capsules when ripe. Dry them inside paper bags
hung on a line with clothes pegs in a dry, airy shed. It is important to mark
clearly on the bag the name of the plant. When collecting moist or juicy
fruits, as for species of Paris, Gaultheria and V&ccinium, place them on a
layer of dry paper or smooth towel and gentry prise them open as they dry.
Once the seed capsules are fully dry and ripe they should be cleaned
as thoroughly as possible, removing the chaff from the seed. I find that a
292 CHAPTER SIX

Primula waltonii with P. sikkimensis, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
 PROPAGATION 293

variety of sieves (liberated from my wife's kitchen) and a strong card serve
this purpose admirably. If the seeds are to be sown soon after collection,
as for aquilegias and androsaces, then they can be put aside for immedi-
ate sowing. In the main text I mentioned special cases such as Anemone,
Adonis and the petiolarid primulas in which the seeds should be collected
earlier in the season and sown at once. This section refers to seed col-
lected later in the season.

Meconopsis horridula, with Primula sikkimensis, Schachen Garden, southern Germany

DIETER SCHACHT
294 CHAPTER SIX

For subjects that will be sown at the turn of the year or in early spring,
the cleaned seed should be placed in a special seed envelope and marked
again with the name of the plant. Store the seed packets in an airtight
plastic container with a sachet of silica gel to absorb any moisture, and
place them in the refrigerator but not the freezer. Dry refrigeration will
preserve the seed in the best condition to be ready for sowing in the early
spring, or from January onwards for alpine subjects.
Some genera require a period of cold over winter, called stratification,
before the seeds will germinate. This can best be achieved by sowing at
the turn of the year in Scotland to allow a few months where the air tem-
perature drops to freezing from time to time, thus breaking dormancy. In
warmer climes stratify seeds by lowering the refrigerator temperature to
about 36°F (2°C) for up to eight weeks prior to sowing.
When seeds are received from an organised seed-collecting expedition,
sow them immediately. Some genera, such as Iris, produce hard-coated
seeds, and these should be soaked in water for forty-eight hours prior to
sowing.
Usually I recommend a John Innes seed compost, a U.K. brand, for
seed-sowing. This is basically a loam-based compost designed to hold
plants, be they seedlings or cuttings, for a longer period of time than
loamless compost. Loamless composts are ideal for seeds that germinate
quickly, and a whole host of loamless, peat-based composts will suit the
Himalayan plants covered here. I have not yet experienced a good sub-
stitute for peat, but this does not mean one is not available. The choice of
compost is wide and depends on the grower's preference.
The use of sphagnum moss as a medium for seed-sowing is a system
devised by my predecessor at Edrom Nurseries, Alex Duguid, for rais-
ing a number of Himalayan species from seed, notably members of Eri-
caceae, Diapensiaceae, Liliaceae and Primulaceae. Its immediate advan-
tage over other soil or soil-less mixtures is its ability to retain moisture,
thus avoiding the drying out which is so disastrous for seed germination.
The most suitable of the several species of sphagnum is the one seen
frequently on the high moor in Britain, usually pink in colour. Leave the
moss in the sun to dry out thoroughly, or bake it in the oven. The sphag-
num must be dead prior to its use as a growing medium. Once it is com-
 PROPAGATION 295

pletely dry, rub it through a1/4-in.(0.6-cm) sieve. Soak the moss in water,
then drain and squeeze it to remove the surplus moisture. Pack it into
sterile pots or pans to within l/2 in. (1 cm) of the surface of the pot. Sow
the seed thinly and label. Do not cover fine seed such as those of the Er-
icaceae or the finer primulas. Larger seeds, such as those of lilies, may be
covered with a thin layer of gritty sand to prevent drying out. Now
plunge the seed pots in sand in a covered frame or greenhouse. The prick-
ing out, or transplanting, of seedlings is as with other methods of seed
sowing, but as with all bulbous species, the liliaceous seedlings are best
retained in their pots without disturbance for a full year's growth and
given a weak liquid feed until well established.
After choosing a good, sterile seed compost, preferably acid in nature
for Himalayan subjects, be sure it is not dry but also not too moist. Then
choose a container. I use square plastic pots, as they are easy to fit with a
little board for pressing down the compost. The pots should be either
brand new or sterilised. Any coarse roughage can be placed in the base of
the pot as supplementary drainage material to prevent water-logging. Fill
the pot or seed tray to the top and level the compost. I then settle the
compost by gently knocking the bottom of the pot flat down onto the
table top to make room to add a little sieved compost, which will aid an
even germination. Gently press down the surface with a board and it is
now ready for sowing. Larger seeds can be placed singly on the surface
with the fingers. For finer seed, scatter it evenly but never thickly on the
compost. Extra-fine seed either may be mixed with some fine sand parti-
cles to spread more evenly or may be sown on top of a thin covering of
chick-grit or vermiculite and the pot gently tapped to help the seed down
between the particles of the topping.
In conventional seed-sowing the seed is now ready for a covering of at
least twice the depth of the seed's diameter. This covering may be a layer
of fine vermiculite, chick grit or a fine washed grit.
I recommend sitting the pots in a tray of water, once they have been la-
belled clearly with the name of the plant and the date of sowing. When
they have taken up water to the point where the surface material is also
wet, then plunge the pots up to their rims in sand to aid moisture reten-
tion, especially if they are clay pots. Cover them with a fine mesh, either
296 CHAPTER SIX

wire or soft plastic will do, to protect the seeds from mice or bird dam-
age. I cannot think of anything more frustrating than to arrive in the
morning to examine the seeds and find them ravaged by mice.
Before germination, the seeds may benefit from a watering with cop-
per oxychloride, such as Murphy Traditional Copper Fungicide in the
United Kingdom. An alternative chemical is the Cheshunt compound.
These will prevent the "damping oft0' of seedlings, the fungal infection
ofBotrytis. And keep careful watch for weed seedlings and remove them.
Some gardeners recommend covering seeds with sheets of newspaper to
retain moisture, but I have found no benefit from it.
For species not requiring stratification, the best germination will be
effected with a minimum temperature of 50°F (10°C) which is easy to
achieve in a cold frame or cool glasshouse. Some ericaceous plants will
germinate better when sown in an ericaceous compost, an acid mix made
of predominantly peat, with a very thin covering and then given some
warmth up to 60°F (16°C).
Once the seeds have germinated, the decision has to be made when to
prick out the seedlings into trays or individual pots. I prefer to wait until
true leaves have formed and then choose a cool day or part of the day to
transplant, so that the seedlings are not placed under extreme stress. The
choice of compost depends very much on the plant in question. In most
cases a peat-based or loamless compost will prove satisfactory for easier
subjects that grow quickly. For plants requiring a longer spell in the tran-
sition stage I would choose a John Innes mix or other proprietary loam-
based mix. Fill a tray with compost and gently firm it, do not compact
it, around the edges. A standard seed tray should hold forty seedlings in
eight-by-five rows, which could be marked out with a dibber or pencil.
Then make the proper holes and place the seedlings in them, one per
hole, with the roots carefully towards the bottom. Fill and firm the holes
so that no air pockets surround the roots. Label the tray and water thor-
oughly. The seedlings can be placed in a cold frame and protected from
scorching sun by shading during the day. Be sure to remove the shading
on cloudy days, and as the seedlings develop into young plants plenty of
ventilation and water should be given. Once fully established into young
plants, they may be exposed to full light without glass or polythene cover,
 PROPAGATION 297

to be shaded only from excessive sunlight. The plants are now ready for
their final position in the garden, and in most cases the planting is best
carried out in the spring to give plants a full season to develop prior to
their first winter.
A luxury that any amateur gardener may wish to have is a small prop-
agator. A propagator is usually an enclosed frame about 2 by 1 ft. (60 by
30 cm) with a soil-warming cable and the optional extra of a misting
unit. A heated propagator may well broaden the scope of items that can
be propagated, while speeding up the germination process and length-
ening the transitional season under glass.
This chapter on propagation is designed to help the keen grower with
the basic principles of the subject. There can be no doubt that much plea-
sure comes from raising one's own plants and being able to give away fa-
vourite species as gifts or swaps to friends.
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER SEVEN

Pests and Diseases

G
ARDENING IN every part of the world is barely possible without
expecting plants to be subject to some kind of malady. All gar-
deners are therefore constantly on the lookout for ways of re-
ducing the incidence of attack. The first and foremost means of deterrent
is good hygiene, particularly important when growing a collection of
plants in containers. This involves keeping the surroundings clean and
free from debris. A glasshouse or cold frame needs to be cleaned every
year, every three years with a disinfectant, such as Jeyes Fluid in the
United Kingdom. The majority of harmful pests find lodgings in detritus
that has formed between panes of glass or along and underneath bench-
ing. If old leaves and herbage are thrown under a bench or left between
pots, this is the perfect home for vine weevil which can completely de-
stroy a collection of plants in a few years. Rather than bombard the plants
and ourselves with organophosphate chemicals, so much better it is to
pay attention to good hygiene.
A word of caution must be said to alert growers who plan to concen-
trate on one genus of plants and build up a collection of, let us say, prim-
ulas, gentians or saxifrages. In each of these cases particular pests or dis-
eases will attack these plants, but such attacks are more prevalent with
monoculture, a fundamental abuse of agricultural laws. A well-managed
garden has a balanced collection of plants. And, according to the law of

299
300 CHAPTER SEVEN

rotation, try to move plants around if possible. While I was running my

nursery, a young man began to take a great interest in primulas and pur-
chased a goodly number of them, to which he added as many Asiatic spe-
cies and hybrids that I had available. One part of me was delighted with
the business, while another had to warn him of the dangers involved.
Soon he had built up a great collection of plants, but after a few years ex-
perienced many problems with, first of all, vine weevil, then root aphids
and finally virus. There was no easy antidote. His only natural safeguard
would have been to try to exercise some self-control and limit his collec-
tion, or spread it around in a series of gardens.
Gentians are no less of a worry when under monoculture. I never ex-
perienced any serious worries with pests and diseases while growing hun-
dreds of them each year, yet wholesale growers who deal in tens of thou-
sands find that gentians suddenly begin to experience a nasty fungal
disease. It is unlikely that the amateur gardener will approach such num-
bers of plants, but I sound a warning nevertheless.
For the saxifrages, the formation of several specialist societies has nat-
urally moved devotees to concentrate on this one group of plants. A pest
that can ruin these lovely cushion plants is the nematode, which attacks
in two forms. The result of a serious attack is that plants fail to make fresh
growth while the existing rosettes, stems and flowers become distorted.
A highly toxic chemical is available to the commercial grower to kill ne-
matodes, but it requires extremely careful use. Biological controls con-
tinue to be developed, and I hope they will diminish the problem caused
by the harmful parasitic nematode, which can be seen effectively only
under a microscope.
A modest collection of any of these particular genera planted out in
the open garden is unlikely to be affected by a fatal attack of this nature.
In a garden with a number of trees, perhaps broadleaf and coniferous,
birds will be attracted both to nest and to remain for the summer, and
others such as blackbirds and thrushes will become permanent residents.
Creating a balanced ecology with effective food chains, including these
birds for example, will help to keep down any build-up of harmful pests
such as vine weevil, slugs, snails and the larvae of leather jacket moths
(Fipula}.
 PESTS AND DISEASES 3OI

Gardeners must decide for themselves whether or not to employ

chemicals in the garden to combat harmful pests and diseases. Advan-
tages in not using them are obvious, but their limited use may prove a
sensible compromise, resorting to them only when it is absolutely nec-
essary, and then taking care to apply the chemical only at the recom-
mended dose and only in the area where the pest or disease is concen-
trated. I have found that slug pellets have to be used to combat this
destructive pest, but the active chemical ingredient seems to make a con-
siderable difference. The chemical methiocarb is very effective. To ensure
that other harmless molluscs and annelids, or worms, are not affected, I
place these pellets inside a small section of tube close to the prized plant
under attack. Sadly and unnecessarily, birds sometimes are killed by this
chemical when they consume a partially affected snail.
One of the most common diseases in the garden is mildew, and M
poppies are particularly prone to this disease when they are under stress,
notably during a prolonged dry spell. The normal remedy is to apply fort-
nightly doses of fungicide, either a systemic or a non-systemic, contact
type. "Systemic" describes a chemical which may be applied as a drench
and will be taken up by the roots to help protect the whole plant from
attack. I strongly recommend watering infected plants at night for several
days and removing and destroying all the foliage badly affected with the
silvery-coloured mildew.
Some older hybrid cultivars of our favourite plants can be attacked by
virus, reducing vigour and causing discolouration of the foliage. In prim-
ulas, virus is most prevalent in hybrids with infertile pollen, meaning no
seed is set. Through constant vegetative propagation such as division or
cuttings, the plants lose vigour and become susceptible to attack by virus.
The most common ones to affect primulas are cucumber mosaic and ara-
bis mosaic viruses. These viruses are usually spread by aphids, or greenfly,
which in turn need to be controlled, particularly in protected areas under
polythene or glass. When plant material becomes infected with virus, de-
stroy it, as virus is easily spread by division and transmitted to clean stock.
Both species and hybrid petiolarid primulas seem to be especially sus-
ceptible.
3O2 CHAPTER SEVEN

Another serious disease which can affect many plants, more particu-
larly during the production cycle, is Botrytis, or greymould. Generally as-
sociated with stagnant air, it is less prevalent in the open garden and more
often encountered in conditions under polythene or glass. This disease
may also cause basal rot to plants in hot weather. The rotten parts of the
plants should be removed and the infected parts drenched with a systemic
fungicide.
By far the most serious pest in gardens across Europe and the United
States is vine weevil. Without intending to be sexist, I sadly must say that
all adult vine weevil are female, and each has the capacity to lay 200 eggs.
This is particularly alarming considering that many of those eggs will
form small larvae or grubs—comma shaped, off-white and with an orange-
brown head—that will live amongst the root systems of most plants, most
notably primulas and woodland species. They will eat through all the
roots until reducing them to mere stubs, causing the plant to wilt and
eventually die. The first tell-tale sign during the growing season is the
wilting of healthy foliage. Lifting the plant will reveal a number of grubs
in the soil around the base of the plant. They should of course be de-
stroyed. Other plants close by should also be checked for similar attacks.
The adult weevil may be spotted at night, after dusk with a torch. It is
a grey-brown-coloured insect resembling a beetle with a protruding
snout. It may be seen clinging to a leaf, leaving the usual rounded, notch-
ing effect on the foliage to alert us to its presence. Unfortunately the daz-
zle of light will cause it to scuttle for cover. The most common host plants
for the adult are Rhododendron, Pieris, Epimedium and many liliaceous
subjects. It is always worth every effort during a warm spell to locate the
adults and destroy them. I use a dim torch and a pair of pliers.
Again, I hope that a biological control for vine weevil will be devel-
oped that will be effective in the open at any temperature. Trials already
have given encouraging results. A simple tip that has certainly worked
for me is occasionally to mix a few drops of Jeyes Fluid into every 2l/2
gallons (10 litres) of water when giving plants their routine watering.
This will act as a deterrent, presumably by its strong odour, causing the
adults to go elsewhere.
 PESTS AND DISEASES 3O3

For growers ofLUium and Fritillaria the scourge of lily beetle is of

great concern. The adult beetle is a bright red colour and eats the leaves
and buds of lilies. The larvae—particularly horrid as they are covered in
their own excrement— can easily strip a lily of its leaves. Persistent watch-
fulness is the best means of control as the adult is reasonably easy to detect.
A problem that is increasing, in my experience, is caterpillar damage
on a variety of Himalayan subjects, notably during dry conditions. The
particular pests are the cut-worms, green or brown caterpillars of various
noctuid moths, including the yellow underwing (Noctuapronuba)^ and
the turnip moths (Agrotis spp.). They may be found at night feeding on
the foliage ofMeconopsis, Primula and other subjects while by day hiding
several inches below the soil. The best control is to collect them by torch-
light and deal with each one.
A number of less common pests and diseases may show up in isolated
areas or on rare occasions. A number of horticultural societies or local
clubs may help with specialised advice to deal with a particular problem.
I cannot overemphasise the need, though, to pay attention to the details
of good hygiene, whether it be in the open or under cover. Out in the
garden, diseased wood or foliage should be removed and burned. Re-
duce the risk of an attack by minimising the occasions when susceptible
plants are allowed to experience stress. Plant stress is generally caused by
under-watering in the open or over-watering in containers. Be alert and
observant, remembering that many pests can be effectively controlled at
night for the sake of a few minutes vigilance with a torch.
Finally, I will relate an embarrassing personal experience which hope-
fully will bring the point of good hygiene home to all of us. A knowl-
edgeable friend was visiting me at the nursery one day during the height
of the growing season. I was showing him around the garden and
stopped for a moment beside an old and very sick plant of the South Af-
rican composite Euryops acraeus. I realised that it had been attacked by a
form of rust and was not responding to my treatment. My learned friend
consoled me saying, "It's a pity you have not controlled the host plants,
groundsel." Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), a common garden weed very
prone to this disease and very easily pulled up at any time, had passed on
3O4 CHAPTER SEVEN

the rust. To add insult to injury, my friend looked up at a row of Scots

pine trees and said, "That's your secondary host." What a fool I had made
of myself, simply because I had not removed the groundsel from the
mixed border. Yes, the rust had passed from the Scots pine to the ground-
sel to the euryops, killing the last and teaching me a simple lesson in good
plant husbandry and hygiene.
 APPENDIX

Sources of Choice
Himalayan Plants and
Newly Introduced Seed

SEED EXCHANGE NURSERIES-EUROPE

The Alpine Garden Society Aberconwy Nursery
AGS Centre Graig
Avon Bank Glan Conwy LL28 STL
Pershore Wales
WorcestershireWRlO 3JP
England Ardfearn Nursery
Bunchrew
Chadwell Plant Seed (available by Inverness-shire IV3 6RH
shares) Scotland
81 ParlauntRoad
Slough Christie's Nursery
Berkshire SL3 8BE Downfield
England Main Road
Westmuir
The North American Rock Garden Kirriemuir
Club Angus DD8 5LP
P.O. Box 67 Scotland
Millwood, New York 10546
U.S.A. Edrom Nurseries
Coldingham
The Scottish Rock Garden Club Eyemouth
SRGC Berwickshire TD14 5TZ
P.O. Box 14063 Scotland
Edinburgh EH10 4YE
Scotland

305
3O6 SOURCES

Ger. van den Beuken Heronswood Nursery

Zegersstraat 7 7530 NE 288th Street
5961 XRHorst (L) Kingston, Washington 98346
Netherlands U.S.A.

Hartside Nursery Mt. Tahoma Nursery

Alston 28111 112th Avenue
Cumbria CA9 3BL E. Graham, Washington 98338
England U.S.A.

Inshriach Alpine Nursery Porterhowse Farms

Aviemore 41371 SE Thomas Road
Inverness-shire PH22 1QS Sandy, Oregon 97055
Scotland U.S.A.

Lamberton Nursery The Primrose Path

No. 3 Lamberton R.D. 2, Box 110
Berwickshire TD15 1XB Scottsdale, Pennsylvania 15683
Scotland U.S.A.

NURSERIES-NORTH AMERICA Siskiyou Rare Plant Nursery

2825 Cummings Road
Arrowhead Alpines
Medford, Oregon 97501
P.O. Box 857
U.S.A.
Fowlerville, Michigan 48836
U.S.A.
We-Du Nurseries
Route 5, Box 724
Forestfarm Nursery
Marion, North Carolina 28752
990 Tetherow Road
U.S.A.
Williams, Oregon 97544
U.S.A.
 Glossary

achene—a one-seeded fruit, usually one of many in a fruiting head

anther—the part of the stamen containing the pollen grains
Arunachal Pradesh—formerly Assam Himalaya in India
axil—the point of connection between the leaf and stem, hence axillary flower
or bud
basal—usually leaves, arising from the base of the stem
biennial—living two years from seedling to death, usually flowering in the sec-
ond year
blade—the expanded, flattened part of a leaf
bract—a modified leaf immediately below a flower
bulbil—a small bulb which can be detached from the larger bulb on which it
grows, to form an independent plant
calyx—the sepals collectively, forming the outer whorl of the perianth
clone—a plant always vegetatively propagated, resulting in genetically identical
offspring
corolla—the petals collectively, forming the inner whorl of the perianth
cyme—an inflorescence formed of axillary branches terminating in a flower,
the central flowers maturing first
effarinose—describes plant parts lacking farina
entire—without lobes, usually describing leaves
epiphytic—growing on other plants but not parasitic on them
farina—a mealy or powdery covering of a plant part, as in Primula
farinose—describes plant parts covered with farina

307
3O8 GLOSSARY

filament—the slender stalk of the stamen which bears the anthers

genus—a nomenclatural group containing closely related species
glabrous—smooth, not hairy
glaucous—having a grey or bluish fine coating
herbaceous—without woody stems, dying down each year or season
hermaphrodite—a plant with both fertile stamens and ovaries present in the
same flower
Himachal Pradesh—A new state in India incorporating Lahul, Kulu, Kinnaur
and Simla; formerly Punjab Himalaya
hybrid—result of cross-breeding between two different species of plants, the
offspring possessing some of the characters of each parent
hybrid swarm—groups of plants of varying shapes and colour derived from a
number of different species
indumentum—the hairy covering of a plant part, as in Rhododendron
inflorescence—the part of the plant on which the flowers are borne
involucral—describes bracts which lie together to form a cup-like structure
lanceolate—shaped like a lance, with the broadest part nearest the base
lobed—rounded, deep divisions at the edge of a leaf, not completely dividing it
monocarpic—taking a number of years to reach flowering, and dying after-
wards, as mMeconopsis
node—a point on the stem from which one or more leaves or buds arise
ovary—part of the female reproductive organ of the flower containing the
ovules which develop into the seeds
panicle—a branched flowering stem
parasitic—living and feeding on another organism
pedicel—the stalk of a single flower
perennial—living for more than two years, or theoretically living indefinitely
perianth—collectively the calyx and corolla of a flower
petiole—the stalk of a leaf
pin-eyed—primula flower in which the style is long, so that the stigma appears
at the mouth of the corolla, and the anthers are inserted in the corolla tube;
compare to thrum-eyed
pinnate—the regular arrangement of leaflets in two rows to either side of the
leafstalk
plicae—the inner membrane or lobe joining the corolla lobes
polycarpic—living for many seasons, not dying after flowering
polymorphic—occurring as more than one form of individual in a single spe-
cies within an interbreeding population
 GLOSSARY 3O9

pseudobulb—a thickened bulb-like stem borne above ground which stores

water and nutrients, as in Pleione
raceme—a simple inflorescence with flowers on short, nearly equal stalks
rhizome—an underground modified stem, often swollen and fleshy
rosette—an arrangement of leaves radiating from a crown or centre, often
spreading over the ground
scape—a flowering stem without leaves
sepal—a segment of the calyx, the outer set of perianth segments
sessile—stalkless
species—the basic unit of nomenclatural classification; a group of plants with
similar characteristics in which the individuals breed freely with each other
spike—a slender, elongated cluster of numerous flowers
stamen—one of the male reproductive organs of the flower, bearing the pollen
stigma—the part of the female reproductive organ which receives the pollen
style—the more or less elongated part of the female organ which bears the
stigma
subspecies (subsp.)—a nomenclatural group within a species showing certain
minor differences
symbiotic—describing an association of two dissimilar organisms, usually to
their mutual advantage
taproot—the main descending root
tepal—the subdivision of a perianth that is not clearly differentiated into calyx
and corolla
thrum-eyed—primula flower in which the style is short, so that the stigma is
included in the corolla tube, and the anthers are positioned at the mouth of
the flower; compare to pin-eyed
tuber— a swollen portion of a stem or root, usually below ground
umbel—a flat-topped inflorescence in which all the flower stalks arise from a
single point
Uttar Pradesh—Indian state which formerly also comprised Kumaon and
Garhwal
variety (var.) — a nomenclatural group of plants subordinate to species and sub-
species
whorl—more than two parts of the same kind, such as leaves or sepals, arising
from the same level around the stem
Xizang—new geographical name for Tibet
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Smith, G. R, andD. B. Lowe. 1977. Androsaces. Woking: The Alpine Garden
Society.
. 1998. The GenusAndrosace. Worcestershire, U.K.: AGS Publications.
Smith, W. W, and H. R. Fletcher. 1941-1948. The genus Primula. Transcript.
Edinburgh: Botanical Society Edinburgh.
Stainton, A. 1988. Flowers of the Himalaya, supplement. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Taylor, G. 1934. An account of the genus Meconopsis. London: New Flora and
Silva.
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Taylor, M., and H. Taylor. 1994. A taste of India. Journal of the Scottish Rock
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33-49.
Wilkie, D. 1936. Gentians. London: Country Life.
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 Index

Boldfaced page numbers indicate color photos.

Abies spectabilis 78 Androsace muscoidea 214, 214

Acer davidii 48 'Dhaulagiri'215
Acer hersii 48 Androsace primulaides 213
Aconitum hookeri 206 Androsace robusta 214, 215
Adonis brevistyla 116 subsp.^w^wraj 215
Adonis chrysocyathus 148,204, 205 Androsace sarmentosa 213
Allium beesianum 163 'Chumbyi'213
var. album 163 Androsace sempervivoides 211,211,
Allium cyaneum 163 212
Allium humik 162 Androsace studiosorum 213
Allium sikkimensis 163 Androsace tapete 26, 219
Allium wallichii 162 Androsace villosa var. jacquemontii
Androsace bisulca 219 214
var. aurata 219 Androsace zambalensis 216
Androsace delavayi 216, 217, 218 Anemone demissa 156, 270
Androsaceglobifera 216 Anemone narcissiflom 156
Androsace Ianu0inosa 213 Anemone obtusiloba 114,115,115,
var. leichlinii 213 155
Androsace lehmannii 216, 217 vzr.patula 114,155
Androsace mucronifolia 14, 39, 212, var. sulphured 114,155
212 Anemone polyanthes 156

313
314 INDEX

Anemone rivularis 28 Corydaliscashmeriana93, 111, 112,

Anemone rupicola 156,157 113,114,242
Anemone trullifolia 115, 116,155, Corydalis ecristata 112,113
156,158,270 Corydctlis latiflom 245
var. linearis 116 Corydalis megacalyx 245
Anemone vitifolium 28 Corydalis meifolia 245, 246
Aquilegiafragrans 39,158 var. violacea 246
Aquilegia nivalis 37, 158,159,231 Cmwfurdia speciosa 64
Arenariaglanduligera 247 Cremanthodium arnicoides 175,175
Asterflaccidus 252 Cremanthodium decaisnei 176
Cremanthodium palmatum 249
Bergenia ciliata 28, 61, 61 subsp. rhodocephalum 249
Bergeniapurpurascens 162 Cremanthodium purpureifolium 31,
Betula pendula 72 248, 248, 249
Betula utilis var. jacquemontii 65 Cremcmthodium reniforme 176,176
Brevipalpus 85 Cycmanthus incanus 169,170
Cyananthus lobatus 141,142, 167,
Calanthe tricarinata 51,52 168
Caltha palustris var. himalensis 177 'Albus' 142,143,167
Cardiocrinumgiganteum 51, 52, 54, Cycmanthus microphyllus 168,169
55 Cyananthus sherriffii 168,169
var. yunnanense 53 Cyananthus spathulifolius 142, 167
Cassiope fastigiata 98, 98 Cyanantbus wardii 169
Cassiope lycopodioides 98 Cypripedium himalaicum 52, 53
'Muirhead' 98 Cypripedium tibeticum 51, 52
'Randle Cooke' 98
Cassiope selaginoides 97 Daphne bholua 63, 64, 81
Cassiope wardii 96, 96, 97, 98 'Jacqueline Postill' 64
Chionocbaris hookeri 251 Daphne retusa 111, 156
Codonopsis demcttidea 111 Delphinium brunonianum 39, 207
Codonopsis convolvulacea 111 Delphinium cashmerianum 158,160
'Alba'111 Delphinium glaciate 207, 208
'Forrest's Form' 111 Delphinium muscosum 207
Codonopsis dicentrifolia, 111 Delphinium nepalense 31, 207
Codonopsisgrey-wilsonii 111 Delphinium viscosum 158
Codonopsis nepalensis 'Himal Snow' Diapensia himalaica 249, 250, 286
111 Diapensia lapponica 249
Codonopsisovata 111, 112 Diapensia purpurea 249
 INDEX 315

Diplarche multiflora 250 Gentiana elwesii 277, 278

Dracocephalumforrestii 170 Gentianageor0ei 274
Dracocephalumwallichii 170 Gentianagilvostriata 276, 277
Gentiana 'Glendevon' 197
Enkianthus cernuus f. rub ens 187 Gentiana xhexa-farreri 193
Eriophyton wallichii 251, 252 Gentiana hexaphylla 193
Eritrichium nanum 251 Gentiana himalayaensis 275
Euphorbiagriffithii 59 Gentiana 'Inverleith' 196
'Dixter' 60 Gentiana lawrencei 189
'Fern Cottage' 60 vw.farreri 189, 190,191,191,
'Fireglow' 60 192, 193,195, 196, 197
'Robert Poland' 60 var. lawrencei 190
Euphorbia myrsinites 59 Gentiana loderi 275
Euphorbia wallichii 59, 60 Gentiana xmacaulayi 195,196
Euphorbia wulfenii 59 'Kingfisher' 196
Gentiana meiantha 275
Fothergilla major 187 Gentiana nubi0ena 275
Fritillaria cirrhosa 106 Gentiana obconica 274
Gentiana ornata 197, 272, 273, 273,
Gaultheria cuneata 99 275, 280
Gaultheria nummularioides 99 Gentianaphylhcalyx 275, 279
Gaultheria sinensis 99 Gentianaprolata 193,196, 276
Gaultheria thymifolia 99 Gentiana 'Sheryl Louise' 198
Gaultheria trichophylla 99,100 Gentiana 'Shot Silk' 189,198
Gentiana 274 Gentiana sino-ornata 36,144, 184,
Gentiana algida 275 185, 186,186,187, 189,195,
Gentiana alpina 275 196,197, 277
Gentiana amplicrater 276, 277 var. alba 186
Gentiana 'Blue Bonnets' 198,199 Gentiana 'Soutra' 198
Gentiana cachemirica 275 Gentiana 'xstevenagensis 189
Gentiana caelestis 274 'Bernardii' 196
Gentiana xcaroli 196 'Frank Barker' 189,197, 198
Gentiana 'Coronation' 200 Gentiana stipitata 273
Gentiana 'David Tuckwell' 189,198 subsp. tizuensis 274
Gentiana depressa 273,279,279,280 Gentiana 'Susan Jane' 198
Gentiana 'DevonhalF 197 Gentiana ternifolia 193
Gentiana 'Edinburgh' 200 'Cangshan' 193
Gentiana 'Elizabeth' 200 'Dali' 193
316 INDEX

Gentiana tubiflora 276 Liquidamber styraciflua 'Worplesdon'

Gentiana urnula 113, 202, 203, 280 187
Gentiana veitchiorum 143,144,189,
196,197 Magnolia campbellii 48
Gentiana wardii 278 Magnolia globosa 48
Geranium donianum 162 Meconopsis aculeata 140,141
Geranium farreri 162 Meconopsis bella 264, 270, 271, 272
Geranium napuligerum 162 Meconopsis betonicifolia 35, 68, 69,
Geranium wallichianum 63 70, 284
'Button's Variety5 63 'Alba' 68, 70
Gueldenstaedtia himalaica 251 Meconopsis delavayi 264, 267, 269,
270, 272
Incarpillea himalayensis 164 Meconopsis dhwojii 68
'Frank Ludlow5164,165 Meconopsis discigera 264, 265, 268,
'Nyoto Sama' 164 270
Incarvilleamairei 156,164,165,166, Meconopsis George Sherriff Group
166 36, 37, 70,183, 284, 285
'Pink Form' 166 Meconopsisgrandis 68, 71, 72, 284
Incarvillea zhongdianensis 165 'Branklyn' 70
Iris bulleyana 178 'George Sherriff 600' 36, 69, 70
Iris chrysqgraphes 178 'Jimmy Bayne' 70
Irisclarkei 178 Meconopsis horridula 155, 264, 265,
266, 267, 293
Leontopodium monocephalum 253 Meconopsis integrifolia 137,138,
var. evax253, 253 139,140
Lilium duchartrei 101 Meconopsis latifolia 140
Lilium henrici 101 Meconopsis napaulensis 4-5, 6-7, 13,
Lilium lankongense 101 40, 65, 66, 66, 67, 67
Lilium lophophorum 101,102 var. wallichii 66
Lilium mackliniae 36, 51, 54, 56, Meconopsis paniculata 65, 66, 67
58, 59,102 Meconopsis pseudointegrifolia 138
Lilium nanum 97,102,103 Meconopsis quintuplinervia 183
Lilium nepalense 28, 39, 51, 54, 56, Meconopsis regia 38, 39, 65
57 Meconopsis xsbeldonii 71,183,183,
Lilium oxypetalum 102 284
var. insigne 102 'Lingholm' 71
Lilium souliei 97, 101,102 Meconopsis sherriffii 140
Lindera obtusiloba 48 Meconopsis simplicifolia 137, 140
 317

Meconopsis superb a 67 Potentilla atwsanguima, 171

Metasequoiagly ptostroboides 48 Potentilla, biflora. 256
Potentitta coriandrifolia 255, 256
Nomocharis aperta 105, 106,144 Potentilla cuneata 256
Nomocharis yfinlayorum 104 Potentilla eriocarpa 256
Nomocharis mairei 105 Potentillafruticosa var.^mndiflora 138
Nomocharis pardanthina 105,105 Potentilld microphylla 230, 234, 255,
Nomocharis saluenensis 106 256
Notholirion macrophyllum 102,104 Potentilla- nepaknsis 39,171
'Miss Willmott5171
Omphalogramma ehvesianum 136 'Shogran'39,171
Omphahgramma minus 136 Primula 236
Omphakgramma vincaeflorum 97,136 Primula alpicola 35, 72, 178,181
Oreosolen wattii 251 vax.violacea 181
Primula amethystina 222
Paraquilegia anemonoides 207 var. brevifolia 222
Paraquilegiajyrandiflora 39,40,207, Primula aureata 223, 224, 224, 226
208,209 subsp.ftmbriata 224,225
Paraquilegia microphytta 208 Primula barnardoana 223
Paris polyphylla 106,107 Primula bella 23
var. yunnanensis f. #/&# 106,108 subsp. cyclostegia 230
Pedicularis kngiflom var. tubiformis subsp. nanobella 230
150 Primula bhutanica 73
Picea smithiana 28 Primula boothii 31, 75, 76, 290
Pm«j wallichiana 28 var. as/to 76
Pleione coronaria, 78, 82, 83 Primula bulleyana 72,180
Pleione formosana 78 Primula bury ana 235,244
Pleioneforrestii 78 vax.purpurea 235, 238
P/^ww^ hookericma 78, 79, 80, 80, 81 Primula calderiana 31,113,132,
P/«<w &MIM& 78, 80, 81, 82, 82,85 133,133,134,136,226
Pleionepraecox 78, 79, 83 subsp. strumosa 132,135,135,136
Podophyllum emodi 61 Primula calliantba 97,220
Podophyllum hexandrum 61, 62 Primula capitata 126
Polygonum affine 184 Primula, caveana 223, 227
'Darjeeling Red' 184 Primula cawdoriana 235, 237, 244
'Donald Lowndes' 184 Primula chionantha 117,119
Polygonum vaccinifolium 171 subsp. sinopurpurea 117,118
Potentilla arbuscula, 241 Primula chungensis 72,180
318 INDEX

Primula clarkei 126,127 Primula obtusifolia 222

Primula cockburniana 132 Primula palmata 132
Primula concinna 226, 227 Primula petiolaris 'Redpoll' 75, 76
Primula cyclostegia 230, Primula pinnatifida 123
Primula denticulata 177,180 Primula prenantha 131
Primula deuteronana 225,226 Primulaprimulina 230, 231
Primula dickieana 220, 221, 222 Primula prolifera 72
Primula dryadifolia 233, 235 Primula pulchra 31, 226, 226
Primula duthieana 39 Primula ulverulenta 72,180
Primula edgeworthii 74, 75 Primula pusilla 230
Primula elizabethae 36, 220 Primula reidii 125, 235, 238
Primula dliptica 39,127 var. williamsii 38,124,125,126,
Primula elongata 223 235
Primula falcifolia 220 Primula reptans 37, 230, 231, 232,
Primula flaccida 124 232,233
Primula florindae 35 Primula rosea 148,177,178, 179
Primula gambeliana 223 Primula rotundifolia 222, 223
Primula geraniifolia 132 Primula sandemaniana 235
Primula gbmerata 126 Primula sapphirina 235
Primulagracilipes 74, 76, 74 Primula secundiflora 179
Primulagriffithii 136, 220 Primula serratifolia 131
Primula helodoxa 72,178 Primula sharmae 226, 227
Primula involucrata 228, 229 Primula sikkimensis 27,40, 71, 72,
subsp. yargongensis 228 178,182, 292, 293
Primula ioessa 129,129,131 var. hopeana 128, 230
var. subpinnatifida 130,130 Primula soldanelhides 235
Primula irregularis 31, 76, 290 Primula sonchifolia 220
Primula japonica 72 Primula stuartii 120,121
Primula kingii 222 Primula 'Tantallon' 74
Primula klattii 235,243, 243 Primula tenuiloba 233, 234
Primula littoniana 123 Primula tibetica 228
Primula macrophylla 39,117,119 Primula tsariensis 136,226
var. moorcroftiana 119 Primula uniflora 235, 243
Primula minutissima 233 Primula valentiniana 222
Primula muscarioides 122,123 Primula vialii 123,124
Primula nana 74 Primula waltonii 36, 72, 292
Primula nutans 124 Primula whitei 31,40,41, 41,42,
Primula obliqua 39,119,120,120 73, 74, 283, 285
 319

Primula wigramiana 14, 201, 235, Rhododendron hodgsonii 73

238,241,242,251 Rhododendron idoneum 91, 92
Primula wollastonii 235, 236, 238, Rhododendron impeditum 92
239, 241 Rhododendron keiskei 92
var. alba 238, 240 Rhododendron lacteum 46
Pseudolarix amabilis 48 Rhododendron laudandum 138
Pseudotsuga menziesii 44 Rhododendron kpidostylum 92
Pycnoplinthopsis bhutanica 251 Rhododendron lepidotum 241, 241
Rhododendron lowndesii 38, 94
Rheum a-lexandrae 179 Rhododendron ludlowii 92
Rheum nobile 172,171,255 Rhododendron 'Ptarmigan' 94
Rhododendron 'Anna Baldsiefen' 94 Rhododendron pumilum 94
Rhododendron anthopogon 91 var. album 95
'Annapurna' 91 Rhododendron racemosum 92
'Betty Graham'91 'Rock Rose'92
Rhododendron arboreum 43, 78, 79, Rhododendron rupicola var. chryseum
81,81 92,93
Rhododendron augustinii 46 Rhododendron 'St. Merryn' 92
Rhododendron barbatum 82 Rhododendron 'St. Tudy5 92
Rhododendron calostrotum 91 Rhododendron sanguineum 54
subsp. calostrotum 91 Rhododendron sargentianum 94
subsp. calostrotum 'Gigha' 91 Rhododendron 'Sarled' 94
subsp. keleticum 91 Rhododendron 'Shamrock' 92
Rhododendron campylocarpum 73 Rhododendron smithii 73
Rhododendron campylogynum 94 Rhododendron telmateium 92
'Bodnant Red' 94 Rhododendron trichostomum 94
var. myrtilloides 94 Rhododendron tsariense 54
Rhododendron chamae-thomsonii 54 Rodgersia nepalensis 62,184
Rhododendron 'Chikor' 92 Rodgersia pinnata 184
Rhododendron cinna-barinum 46,46, Roscoea alpina 109,109
73,113 Roscoea auriculata 110
var. roy/« 46 Roscoea cautleoides 108
Rhododendron 'Curlew5 92 Roscoea humeana 109
Rhododendron 'Dora Amateis' 94 Roscoea purpurea 110
Rhododendron fastigiatum 91 'Red Gurkha'110
Rhododendron fictolacteum 46 Roscoea scillifolia 110
Rhododendron fortunei 46 Roscoea tibetica 109
Rhododendron hftncea-num^snum' 92 Roscoea yunnanensis
32O INDEX

Salix calyculata 163, 256, 257 Sorbus koehneana 47

Salix hylematica 163 Sorbus microphylla 39
Saussurea gossypiphora 31, 254, 254 Sorbus monbeigii 47
Saussurea obvallata 255 Sorbus poteriifolia 144
Saussurea simpsoniana 254 Sorbus reducta 105, 144
Saussurea tridactyla 254 Sorbus sargentiana 47
Saxifraga alpigena, 263, 264 Stellem chamaejasme 149,149,151
Saxifraga andersonii 262, 262, 263 van chrysantha 151
Saxifraga caveana 258, 259
Saxifraga cinerea 263, 264 Tanacetumgossypinum 255
Saxifraga, divorum 263 Taxus wallichiana, 28
Saxifraga bypostoma, 262, 263 Thalictrum chelidonii 60
Saxifraga imbricata 264 Trigonotis rotundifolia 256
Saxifraga jacquemontiana 258, 260 Trollius acaulis 159,161,178, 270
Saxifraga lowndesii 261, 261 Tsuga dumosa 28, 78, 82
Saxifrages lychnitis 258 Tufa 209
Saxifraga nutans 258
Saxifraga oppositifolia 261 Vaccinium delavayi 100
Saxifraga poluniniana 261 Vacdnium glauco-album 99
Saxifraga pulvinaria 263,264 Vaccinium moupinense 100
Saxifraga rhodopetala 263 Vaccinium nummularia 100
Saxifraga stolitzkcte 263, 286
Sorbus cashmiriana 47 Waldheimiaglabra, 255
Sorbus 'Harry Smith 12799' 47 Waldheimia stolitzkae 255
Sorbus 'Joseph Rock' 47 Waldheimia tomentosa 255